Final Exam Flashcards
(127 cards)
1
Q
Types of animal movement
A
- Dispersal
- Migration
2
Q
Dispersal
A
Permanent departure from a home population
3
Q
Migration
A
Repeated movements between two (or more) home ranges
4
Q
Two categories of dispersal
A
- Natal Dispersal
- Breeding Dispersal
5
Q
Natal Dispersal
A
The permanent movement of an individual from its birth site to a place where it reproduces. Only happens once
6
Q
Breeding Dispersal
A
The permanent movement of adults between breeding areas (populations) which can occur multiple times
7
Q
Two Modes of Dispersal
A
- Active Dispersal
- Passive Dispersal
8
Q
Active Dispersal
A
Animal uses its own locomotive ability to move from one area to another. Often “seeking” correct conditions
ex. large animals
9
Q
Passive dispersal
A
Animal relies on other factors, like wind or water currents to help them move. Relies on random chance to find good conditions
ex. small animals
10
Q
Dispersal Benefits (3)
A
- Inbreeding avoidance
- Competition for mates
- Competition for resources
11
Q
Dispersal Costs (4)
A
- Energy
- Risk (resource, habitat, predators)
- Time
- Opportunity (if suboptimal habitat)
12
Q
Sex-biased Dispersal: Male
A
More likely to disperse in mammals
13
Q
Sex-biased Dispersal: Female
A
More likely to disperse in birds
14
Q
Benefits of Migration
A
Functional: avoid harmful climatic conditions, resources
Evolutionary: less change in tropics than poles
15
Q
Latitudinal migration
A
To avoid harmful climatic conditions (North-South)
16
Q
Altitudinal migration
A
To avoid harmful climatic conditions (High-Low)
17
Q
Tropical Origins Hypothesis
A
Tropical species began migrating poleward during breeding season to take advantage of the bountiful food resources as they raised offspring
18
Q
Temperate Origins Hypothesis
A
Temperate species began migrating toward the topics to take advantage of milder climates during the non-breeding season
19
Q
How do they migrate? (mechanistic reasons)
A
Urge to migrate and overall sense of migratory direction based on genetics and triggered by changes in day length
20
Q
How do they migrate (development reasons)
A
Many animals need to learn the exact route and destination through visual landmarks, olfactory landscape, regional sound cues, water depth/salinity
21
Q
Costs to Migration (2)
A
- Energy
- Risks
22
Q
Predator
A
An animal that kills and eats other animals
23
Q
Prey
A
An animal that is killed and eaten by other animals
24
Q
What are the 5 stages of predation
A
- Search
- Detection
- Decision
- Capture
- Subjugation
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1. Search
Predator is alert for potential prey
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2. Detection
Predator becomes aware of the prey
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3. Decision
Predator assesses prey and decides to target it
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4. Capture
Predator approaches and grabs the prey
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5. Subjugation
Predator subdues and kills prey
30
Prey Acquisition Strategies (2)
1. Ambush predators
2. Pursuit predators
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Ambush Predators
Waiting in concealment until prey gets near, then launch an overwhelming surprise attack
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Pursuit predators
Actively chasing prey and relying on superior speed, endurance, and/or teamwork to capture them
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Ways to "ambush" prey (3)
1. Wait near resource
2. Build traps
3. Lure prey
34
Strategies to aid DETECTION (2)
1. Anatomical adaptations (specialized sensory organs and PNS/CNS tuning)
2. Cognitive adaptations (search image)
35
Search Image and why to use
A mental image of prey based on prior experience that allows rapid recognition of target food, more food per time foraging, but can be costly if ignoring other options
36
Strategies to aid DECISION
Identify weaker individuals that are easy to subdue/capture
37
Strategies to aid CAPTURE (4)
1. Prey herding and manipulation
2. Stalking
3. Coursing (persistent pursuit)
4. Build a trap
38
Strategies to aid SUBJUGATION (2)
1. Kill bite
2. Debilitate prey
39
Avoiding SEARCH (2)
1. Adjust activity pattern
2. Harass the predator
40
Diurnal
Active during the day
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Nocturnal
Active during night
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Crepuscular
Active during twilight
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Mobbing
Animals collectively attack a predator to distract it or drive it away
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Avoiding DETECTION (1)
Cryptic coloration
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Types of cryptic coloration (3)
1. Natural Camouflage
2. Artificial Camouflage
3. Adaptive Camouflage
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Natural Camouflage
Have a color pattern that minimizes contrast with the background and may also mimic the environment itself
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Artificial Camouflage
Disguise self with the environment
48
Adaptive Camouflage
Change own color/pattern to match environment
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Cryptic coloration
Types of camouflage
Behavior must support physiology
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Avoiding DETECTION (4)
1. Aposematic (warning) coloration
2. Mullerian Mimicry
3. Batesian Mimicry
4. Slotting
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Aposematic (warning) coloration
Warns other animals not to attack because they contain toxins or produce other noxious chemicals
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Mullerian mimicry
two (or more) distasteful/harmful species resemble each other = increases chance predator already learnedB to avoid that phenotype
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Batesian mimicry
a defenceless species resembles a harmful species
54
Why advertise warning coloration?
You're not always killed during attack, predators learn very quickly, and toxic gene found in kin benefit from knowledgeable predator avoidance.
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Stotting
Deterring attack by adversing unprofitability
56
Avoiding CAPTURE (4)
1. Flee to safety
2. Startle/frighten predator
3. Passive social defense
4. Active social defense
57
Passive social defenses (3)
1. Dilution effect
2. Confusion effect
3. Selfish herd
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Dilution effect
Individual risk is lessened when part of a group
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Confusion effect
moving as a group makes it difficult for a predator to chase down a specific individual
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Selfish herd
individuals increase safety by putting others between themselves and the predators
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Active social defenses (2)
1. Many eyes effect
2. Coordinated defenses
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Many eyes effect
more individuals scanning for danger
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Coordinated defense
Individuals cooperate to defend each other
64
Avoiding SUBJUGATION (4)
1. Fight back
2. Play dead (thanatosis)
3. Bizarre (autotomy)
4. Death screams
65
Sociality
the degree to which individuals in an animal population tend to associate in social groups and from cooperative societies
66
Benefits of Sociality (3)
1. Predator defense
2. Foraging efficiency
3. Increased reproductive opportunities
67
Costs of Sociality (4)
1. Resource competition
2. Reproductive competition
3. More conspicuous predators
4. Increased risk of diseases/parasites
68
Social behavior
Behavior among 2+ individuals in which one member affects the otherC
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Cooperation
Behavior that benefits the recipient
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Cooperation is necessary for sociality (T/F?)
False.
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Selfish social behavior
any social behavior where the actor benefits but the recipient incurs a cost
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examples of selfish social behavior (4)
1. Kleptoparasitism
2. Territoriality
3. Deceitful communication
4. Failing to reciprocate altruistic behavior
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Spiteful Social Behavior
any social behavior where the actor incurs a cost (as does the recipient)
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Types of cooperation (2)
1. Mutualism
2. Altruism
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Mutualism
both actor and recipient benefit
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Altruism
recipient benefits, but at a cost to the actor
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Kin Selection
actor incurs a cost to help a family member (related to actor, thus behavior more likely to benefit the genes carried by the actor)
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Reasons to cooperate (despite costs) (3)
1. Delayed Benefits
2. Reciprocity
3. Kin Selection
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Cooperation benefits: delayed benefits
actor helps the recipient for a chance to gain future rewards (usually through inheritance)
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Cooperation benefits: reciprocity
actor helps the recipient bc the recipient will repay the favor in the future when the actor is the one who needs help
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Costs of cooperation
Recipient can cheat - prisoner's dilemma
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What is the key to cooperation?
Repeated interactions as defections become less beneficial
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FOUR requirements of reciprocity
1. Repeated pair-wise interactions with role reversal (taking turns helping)
2. The benefit of receiving aid must outweigh the cost of donating it
3. Donors must be able to recognize and punish cheaters who failed to reciprocate
4. Cooperation can't be explained more simply via mechanism that doesn't rely on recipocation
84
Group selection
group/species with self-sacrificing individuals more likely to persist than groups without altruists
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Why doesn't group selection work? (2)
1. Possibility of cheaters
2. Infanticide
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What is the most common form of altruism
Kin selection
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Inclusive fitness theory
a behavior can increase fitness directly via personal reproduction (direct fitness) or by helping the survival/reproduction of kin (indirect fitness)
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Inclusive fitness
the total measure of an individuals contribution of genes to the next generation
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Hamilton's rule
the representation and mathematical equation representing inclusive fitness
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1st order relatives - coefficient of relatedness
r = 0.5
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2nd order relatives - coefficient of relatedness
r = 0.5
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3rd order relatives - coefficient of relatedness
r = 0.125
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When should altruism be favored
Br_b>Cr_c
- when actor/recipient closely related
- cost to actor is low
- benefits to recipient are high
94
Eusociality
the highest level of sociality, defined as possessing the following traits: overlapping generations, cooperative care of young, division of society into reproductive (royal) and non-reproductive (worker) groups
95
Almost all ________ are eusocial
Arthropods
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What is the most common type of eusocial arthropods?
Hymenopterans
97
Benefits of Eusociality (4)
1. role specialization
2. efficient resource collection
3. collective defense
4. enhanced reproductive rate
98
Categories of eusociality (2)
1. Female only eusociality
2. Male female eusociality
99
Female only eusociality
Altruism only practiced by females (males live in colony, but rarely help). Sex ratio 3:1.
Primary purpose of colony is to safeguard offspring and store food (location is flexible)
100
Male-female eusociality
altruism observed in both sexes. Sex ratio 1:1. Primary purpose of colony is to safeguard a critical resource (colonies are located amongst or inside food)
101
Diploid cells
contain two sets of chromosomes (2N)
Inherited from gametes; one set from the mother, the other set from the father
102
Haploid cells
contain only a single copy of each chromosome (1N)
if entire organism is haploid, it inherited its genes from a single gamete
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Haplodiploid organism
organisms (like hymenopterans) are either diploid or haploid based on sex.
Males are haploid (1N), and are produced via parthenogenesis (development from an unfertilized egg)
Females are diploid (2N), and are produced via sexual reproduction
104
In hymenopteran colonies, ______ are more related to each other than they are to their ______ or _______
sisters; mothers; offspring
105
Haplodiploid hypothesis
This asymmetry in inheritance promotes the evolution of altruism by females. workers gain more by helping their mother produce more workers (sisters) than they do in producing offspring for themselves
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Why do many Hymenopterans queens’ mate with multiple males?
reduces r between workers and makes them less likely to mate with each other.
also worker policing
107
worker policing
when a female worker takes action to prevent her fellow worker from having offspring
108
Hypotheses explaining eusocial evolution in diploid species
Ecological constraints
109
Ecological constraints
1. Unusual food requirements force these species to defend vital food resource
2. Usually live among/inside food
3. Enclosed food/shelter
4. Leaving is risky
5. Inbreeding
6. High coefficient of relatedness (inbreeding)
7. high r makes altruism more effective
110
What sets humans apart from other animals? - Unique physical traits
speech (language) brains (large pallium)
111
What sets humans apart from other animals? Unique behaviors
Fire & writing
112
How is human language different (5)
Arbitrary – usually no rational relationship between a word and its meaning
Semantic – specific signals have specific meanings
Discrete – language is composed of small, separate, and repeatable parts
Capable of displacement – can refer to things that aren’t present
Productive – constantly changing due to novel utterances
113
Mechanisms of speech/language - Gene
FOXP2 gene
114
Broca's area
associated with the ability to synthesize speech
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damage to brocas area
muteness
116
Wernickes area
associated with the ability to comprehend spoken language
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damage to wernickes area
aphasia
118
critical period hypothesis
the first few years of life constitute a time
when language is learned most easily and after which (somewhere
between age 5 and puberty) language acquisition becomes much
more difficult
119
McGurk Effect
illusion where speech sounds are miscategorized when the auditory cues of the sound stimulus conflict with visual cues from the speaker's face
120
why are apes not capable of speech
larynx too high; tongue too long
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Function of speech/language hypotheses (3)
1. Technical hypothesis
2. Social group formation hypothesis
3. Verbal courtship hypothesis
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Technical hypothesis
Language may have evolved bc it facilitates effective tool making. Gestural/verbal teaching more effective at training a new user to construct tools
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Social group formation hypothesis
Dialects contain info about where the speaker lives (or where raised), their social status, and their desire to affiliate with others. People subconsciously mimic the surrounding accent when trying to fit in. Dialect mimicry even occurs when only lipreading is possible. Can be used as a ‘badge of membership’ and to identify outsiders
124
Verbal Courtship Hypothesis
Human speech may play a role in sexual selection. Men try to impress with vocab, women use vocab to rate men
125
Human Sexual Dimorphisms (4)
1. men are larger
2. women live longer
3. male mortality higher between puberty and middle-age
4. some sexual selection in our recent evolutionary ancestry
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Assortative mating
men and women tend to seek a partner with a comparable level of attractiveness
127
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