Final exam

Question 1

What is behaviour, generally and technically? Give three synonyms for behaviour.

Answer 1

behaviour is anything that a person says or does. Technically, behaviour is any muscular, glandular , or electrical activity of an organism.
Synonyms: activity, action, performance responding, response and reaction.

Question 2

Distinguish between overt and covert behaviour?

Answer 2

Overt (visible) behaviours that could be observed and recorded and recorded by an individual other than the one performing the behaviour. Example: walking, talking out loud, throwing a basketball , yelling at someone

Covert (private, internal) activities that cannot be readily observed by others. For example when one feels nervous while he shoots free throws or a blood pressure increase due to increase in anger towards an opponent.

Question 3

What is behavioural deficit? Give two examples

Answer 3

Behaviour deficits are too little behaviour of a particular type.

1) a child does not ask for permission when taking another child’s toy
2) a soccer player who passes the soccer ball instead of taking the open shot.

Question 4

What is a behaviour excess? Give two examples

Answer 4

Behaviour excess is too much behaviour of a particular type.

1) a goalie often closes his eyes the instant an opponent shoots the puck.
2) a person constantly washes their hand before, during and even after an activity such as opening the door.

Question 5

Define behaviour modification

Answer 5

Behaviour modification involves the systematic application of learning principles and techniques to assess and improve individuals’ covert and overt behaviour in order to enhance their daily functioning.

Question 6

Define Behavioural assessment

Answer 6

Behavioural assessment involves the collection and analysis of information and data in order to

(1) identify and describe target behaviours
(2) identify possible causes of behaviour
(3) guide the selection of an appropriate behavioural treatment
(4) evaluate treatment outcome

Question 7

List four or misconceptions about behavioural modification.

Answer 7

1) Use of rewards of by behaviour modifiers to change behaviour is bribery
2) Behaviour modification involves the use of drugs, psychology, and electroconvulsive therapy
3) Behaviour modification changes only symptoms but doesn’t get at underlying problems
4) Behaviour modification can be applied to deal with simple problems, such as toilet training children or overcoming fear of heights, but it is not applicable for changing complex problems such a low self- esteem or depression
5) Behaviour modifiers are cold and unfeeling and don’t develop empathy with their clients.
6) Behaviour modifiers deal only with observable behaviour; they don’t deal with deal with thoughts and feelings of clients
7) Behaviour modification is outdated.

Question 8

List four behaviours in persons with intellectual disabilities that have been modified by behaviour modification.

Answer 8

1) Toileting
2) self-help skills(ie. Feeding, dressing and personal hygiene)
3) social skils
4) communication skills
5) vocational skils
6) leisure-time activities

Question 9

What is health psychology?

Answer 9

Healthy psychology considers how psychological factors can influence or cause illness and how people can be encouraged to practice healthy behaviour to prevent health problems.

Question 10

Describe five areas of application within heath psychology

Answer 10

1. Direct treatment of Medical problems
2. Establishing treatment compliance
3. Promotion of healthy living
4. Managment of caregivers
5. Stress management

Question 11

What is behavioural community psychology?

Answer 11

Applications to socially significant problems in unstructured community settings where the behaviour of individuals is not considered deviant in the traditional sense

Question 12

Define organizational behaviour management

Answer 12

OBM is defined as the application of behaviour principles and methods to the study and control of individual or group behaviour within organizational settings.

Question 13

List four general areas of sport psychology in which behaviour modification has been applied.

Answer 13

• techniques for improving skills of athletes
• Strategies for motivating practice and endurance training
• Changing the behaviour of coaches
• “Sports pcyching” to prepare for competition

Question 14

What is a baseline? Give an example.

Answer 14

A baseline phase is a measure of behaviour in the absence of a treatment program. For example, a mother playing with her child as if they were at home in an observation room

Question 15

What is positive reinforcer?

Answer 15

a positive reinforcer is a stimulus that, when presented immediately following a behaviour, causes the behaviour to increase in frequency.

Question 16

What is the principle of positive reinforcement?

Answer 16

Positive reinforcement states that if, in a given situation, somebody does to do the same thing again when he or she next encounters a similar situation.
#6.What is operant behaviour? Describe an example, and indicate how the example fits the definitions of operant behaviour. 
Behaviours that operate on the environment to generate consequences and are in turn influenced by those consequences. . An example would be waving to a driver waiting to get into your lane to pull into traffic in front of you. That is a behaviour that operates on the environment, it generated a consequence (the driver was let into traffic) and because of the driver’s gratefulness, will influence the behaviour in the future

Question 17

Why is it necessary to be specific when selecting a behaviour for a reinforcement program?

Answer 17

• help to ensure the reliability of detecting instances of the behaviour and changes in its frequency, which is the yard-stick by which one judges reinforce effectiveness
• increase the likelihood that the reinforcement program will be applied consistently

Question 18

After dinner, a teenager begins washing dishes and the parent stops nagging the teenage to do so. Is that an example of positive reinforcement? Explain why or why not, in terms of the definition of positive reinforcement.

Answer 18

This is not a positive reinforcement because it is a removal of an event. The parents have stopped nagging, but have not given any sort of positive reinforcement.

This is an example of escape conditioning or negative reinforcement which states that there are certain stimuli, aversive, whose removal after the occurrence of a behaviour will increase the likelihood of that behaviour.

Question 19

What do behaviour modifiers mean by the team deprivation? Describe an example?

Answer 19

Deprivation to indicate the time during which an individual does not experience a particular reinforcer For example, food deprivation not only establishes food as an effective reinforcer for the person who is food deprived but also momentarily increases various behaviours that have been reinforced with food

Question 20

What do behaviour modifiers mean by the team satiation? Describe an example?

Answer 20

Satiation refers to a condition in which an individual has experienced a particular reinforce to such an extent that it is temporarily no longer reinforcing. For example in regards to the food example, rewarding and individual with food every time he or she displayed the reinforced behaviour to the point of them being full (or saturated) will affect the individual’s behaviour in the sense they will no longer look forward to the reinforcement (food).

Question 21

If you instruct someone about a positive reinforcement for that person’s behaviour, is that bribery? Why or why not?

Answer 21

No that is not bribery because the use of instructions about a reinforcement program to strengthen desirable behaviour. It distinguishes between the promises of reinforcers for desirable behaviors versus the promise of reinforcers for immoral or illegal deeds.

Question 22

Distinguish between the direct and indirect of a positive reinforce

Answer 22

Direct : increased frequency of a response because it was immediately followed by that reinforce.
Indirect: the strengthening of a response that is followed by that reinforce even though the reinforcer is delayed.

Question 23

What is adventitious reinforcement? What is superstitious behaviour? Give an example of each?

Answer 23

Adventitious reinforcement is when behaviour accidentally followed by a reinforcer may be strengthened even if it did not actually produce the reinforce. For example, if little Johnny is in his bedroom drawing on the walls with a crayon when the parents calls out, “Johnny, lets go get ice cream” This accidental contingency might strengthen Johnny’s tendency to draw to on his walls.
Superstitious behaviour that is strengthen and maintained by adventitious reinforcement . Example, if a man playing a slot machine tends to cross his fingers because in the past, he won the jackpot

Question 24

What do we mean by the natural environment? By natural reinforcers? By programmed reinforcers?

Answer 24

Natural environment is a setting in which an individual carries out normal, everyday functions.
Natural reinforcers that follow behaviour in the course of everyday living
Programmed reinforcers that are arranged systematically by psychologists, teachers and other in behaviour modification programs

Question 25

Describe an example of Pitbull Type 1 that involves a person unknowingly applying positive reinforcement to strengthen an undesirable behaviour?

Answer 25

Situation- While getting ready for work in the morning, a man cannot find his clean shirt.
Response- He hollers loudly, “where in the hell is my shirt?”
Immediate consequence- The wife immediately finds the husband’s shirt.
Long-term effects- In the future, the husband is more likely to holler and swear when he can’t find his clothes.

Question 26

Explain what an unconditioned reinforcer is. Give two examples.

Answer 26

Stimuli that are reinforcing without prior learning or conditioning . Unlearned reinforcers. For example: food for a hungry person and water for a thirsty person ,warmth for someone who is cold

Question 27

Explain what an conditioned reinforcer is. Give and explain two examples.

Answer 27

Stimuli that were not originally reinforcing but have become reinforcers by being paired or associated with other reinforcers . Learned reinforcers.
Praise: Parents who praise their child’s good behavior are also likely to smile at the child, play with the child, or give the child a toy and
Another example is to read books that we like because we must first learn of the book and decide if we like it or not. The book then elicits feelings of happiness, enjoyment and excitement.

Question 28

What are tokens?

Answer 28

Conditioned reinforcers that can accumulated and exchanged for backup reinforcers

Question 29

Explain in two or three sentences what a token economy is?

Answer 29

a behaviour modification program in which individuals can earn tokens for specific behaviours and can cash in their for backup reinforcers. A teacher might a token economy for good behaviours which the student earn tokens, and then the students can cash in the token at the end of semester for candy or prizes.

Question 30

Is money a token? Justify your answer

Answer 30

Yes, it is a token because people receive payment as “paper money” on which is written the amount earned, the individuals name . the name of the employee who paid the individual, the date and the task the individual performed to earn the token.

Question 31

Distinguish between a simple conditioned reinforcer and a generalized conditioned reinforcer. Explain why a generalized conditioned reinforcer is more effective than a simple conditioned reinforcer.

Answer 31

Simple conditioned reinforcer is a conditioned that is paired with a single backup reinforcer.
Generalized conditioned reinforce, a stimulus that is paired with more than one of back up reinforcer.

A generalized conditioned reinforcer is more effective because they have more pairings with reinforcers which can may have a more dramatic effect, for example like money - it is a powerful generalized reinforcer for us because of its pairings with food, clothing, shelter, transportation.

Question 32

What are two parts to the principle of extinction?

Answer 32

• If, in a given situation, an individual emits a previously reinforced behaviour and that behaviour is not followed by behaviour.
• then that person is less likely to do the same thing again when next encountering a similar situation

Question 33

What is the difference between forgetting and extinction?

Answer 33

Forgetting: a behaviour is weakened as a function of time following its last occurrence
Extinction weakens behaviour as a result of being emitted without being reinforced.

Question 34

Explain the difference, in terms of procedure and results, between the loss of value of a conditioned reinforcer(see chapter 4) and the extinction of a positively reinforced behaviour.

Answer 34

For a conditioned reinforcer to remain effective, it must, at least occasionally, be associated with a suitable backup reinforcer. In the example of the token program described previously, if the kindergarten teacher discontinued the backup reinforcers for which the stars could be exchanged, the children may have eventually stopped behaving appropriately for which they received the stars. The principle of extinction ( operant) states that ( a) if, in a given situation, an individual emits a previously reinforced behavior and that behavior is not followed by a reinforcer, ( b) then that person is less likely to do the same thing again when next encountering a similar situation. Stated differently, if a response has been increased in frequency through positive reinforcement, then completely ceasing to reinforce the response will cause it to decrease in frequency.

Question 35

If a behaviour that was maintained by positive reinforcement is not reinformed at least once in a while, what will happen to the behaviour?

Answer 35

the behaviour will become extinct.

Question 36

Why is necessary to consider the setting as a factor influencing your extinction program.

Answer 36

The setting is important to consider in your extinction program because it is important to minimize the possibility that other people will reinforce the behaviour the behaviour you are trying to decrease. Another reason is that it may be socially difficult or even impossible to carry out extinction in certain situations. It is important to consider the setting in which extinction will be carried out to minimize the influence of alternative reinforcers on the undesirable behaviour to be extinguished and to maximize the chances of the behaviour modifier persisting with the program.

Question 37

What is an extinction burst? Describe an example?

Answer 37

An increase in responding during extinction is commonly referred to as an extinction burst.
For example, a child snaps their fingers to gain the attention of the teacher. The teacher who keeps track of the frequency of finger snapping for a while and introduces extinction would probably observe an increase in finger snapping during the first few minutes of extinction before the behaviour gradually began to taper off.

Question 38

What is spontaneous recovery? Describe an example?

Answer 38

The reappearance of an extinction of an extinguished is following a rest.
For example, during first hr, there is 10 finger snapping but teacher ignores it..and then the afternoon section, there is no finger snapping. So the teacher thinks finger snapping has been extinguished. However, the next morning, the finger snapping occurs again randomly.

Question 39

What are three possible reasons for the failure of an extinction program?

Answer 39

• the attention you are withholding following the undesirable behaviour is not the reinforcer that was maintaining the behaviour
• the undesirable behaviour is receiving is receiving intermittent reinforcement from another source
• the desired alternative behaviour has not been strengthened sufficiently

Question 40

Define and give an example of intermittent reinforcement

Answer 40

an arrangement in which a behaviour is reinforced only occasionally . For example, if you get reinforced after a fixed number of problem-solving response has occurred.

Question 41

Define and give an example of schedule of reinforcement

Answer 41

a rule specifying which occurrences of a give behaviour, if any, will be reinforced. For example every time your child brushes her teeth in the morning she gets a token, if she does not brush her teeth she does not get a token.

Question 42

Define and give an example of continuous reinforcement

Answer 42

an arrangement in which each instance of a particular response is reinforced. For example, you get a reinforcer , after each questions is answered.

Question 43

Describe four advantages of intermittent over continuous reinforcement for maintaining behaviour.

Answer 43

• the reinforcer remains effective longer because satiation takes place more slowly,
• behaviour that has been reinforced intermittently tends to take longer to extinguished
• individuals work more consistently on certain intermittent schedules
• behaviour that has been reinforced intermittently is more likely to persist after being transferred to reinforcers in the natural environment

Question 44

What is a free-operant procedure? Give an example?

Answer 44

one in which the individual is “free” to respond repeatedly in the sense that there are no constraints on successive response.For example, you are given 12 math problems, you could work at various rates( 1 per min, 3 per min)

Question 45

What is a discrete-trials produce? Give an example?

Answer 45

a distinct stimulus is presented prior to an opportunity for a response to occur and to be followed by reinforcement, and the next response cannot occur until another stimulus is presented and so on. For example, a teacher giving a student one math question, giving the child a period of time to answer and then present the another math problem. And on and on.

Question 46

Explain what an FR schedule is. Describe the details of two examples of FR schedules in everyday life(at least one of which is not in this chapter). Do your examples involves a free-operant procedure or discrete-trials procedure?

Answer 46

Fixed-ratio schedule, a reinforce occurs each time a fixed number of responses of a particular type are emitted. For example if a football coach were to say to the team, “everybody do 20-pushups before taking a break” and paying an industrial worker for a specified number of completed parts. discrete-trials produces

Question 47

Explain what an VR schedule is. Describe the details of two examples of VR schedules in everyday life(at least one of which is not in this chapter). Do your examples involves a free-operant procedure or discrete-trials procedure?

Answer 47

Variable-ratio schedule, a reinforcer occurs after a certain number of a particular response, and the number of response required for each reinforcer changes unpredictably from one reinforcer to the next. For example, asking someone for a date is an example because even the most popular people often have to ask an unpredictable number of different people to obtain an acceptance. Slot machines are programmed on VR schedules: the gambler has no way of predicting how many times he or she must put in money to hit a payoff. discrete-trials produce? And free operant procedure

Question 48

What is FI schedule?

Answer 48

Fixed-interval schedule, a reinforcer is presented following the first instance of a specific response after a fixed period of time

Question 49

What is VI schedule?

Answer 49

Variable-interval schedule, a reinforcer is present following the first instance of a specific response after an interval of time, and the length of the interval changes unpredictably from one reinforcer to the next.

Question 50

Explain what an FI/LH schedule is and describe the details of an example from everyday life.

Answer 50

An FI/LH schedule a fixed interval schedule with a limited hold, ie. after a fixed interval, there’s a limited amount of time for the response to be made. For example, when catching a plane, you can arrive any time before boarding starts, but the plane will only wait for a limited amount of time after that.

Question 51

Explain two examples of how VI/LH might be applied in training programs?

Answer 51

A VI/LH schedule can be used in a classroom setting. For example, a teacher faced with a classful of rambunctious young students might use a variation of The Timer game, such as a VI 30 mins/LH 0 seconds schedule to reinforce in-seat behaviour. That is, if the children are working quietly at their seats whenever the timer rings after a variable 30 minute interval, they would receive some desirable item such as points that could be accumulated toward extra free time.
A VI/LH schedule can also be used to maintain a certain behaviour over an extended period of time. Parents might use it to reduce their children’s bickering and to reinforce good behaviour. For example if a family is on a road trip and the kids won’t stop fighting in the backseat the parents can set a VI/LH schedule and set a timer for any value up to 25 minutes (ie VI 25mins/LH 0 sec). If the children are misbehaving when the timer goes off they lose five minutes in the pool when they get to the hotel. If they are behaving and playing nicely when the timer goes off, then they will earn 5 minutes in the pool. This VI/LH schedule will most likely be very effective at reinforcing prolonged good behaviour and reducing bickering.

Question 52

Explain what an FD schedule is and describe the details of an example from everyday life.

Answer 52

In a fixed-duration schedule (FD), a reinforcer is presented only if a behaviour occurs continuously for a fixed period of time. The value of the FD schedule is the amount of time that the behaviour must be engaged in continuously before reinforcement occurs (eg. If it is 1 minute, we call the schedule a FD 1-minute schedule). A FD schedule produces a post-reinforcement pause, unlike a VD schedule. A worker who is paid by the hour is an example of a FD schedule. He must work continuously for a given period of time by he is reinforced by payment. Another example of a FD schedule in everyday life is waiting at a traffic light. If a traffic light turns red in front of you, must stop your car to let other traffic pass for a fixed period of time until the light turns green and you are reinforced by being able to move forward and continue on to your destination.

Question 53

What are concurrent schedules of reinforcement ? Describe an example?

Answer 53

When each of two or more behaviours is reinforced on different schedules at the same time, the schedules of reinforcement that as in effect, For example, if you watching tv, doing homework and talking to a friend on the phone at the same time.

Question 54

Define limited responding DRL and give an example?

Answer 54

Limited-responding differential of low rates (DRL), specific a maximum allowable number of response during a certain time interval in order for a reinforcer to occur. For example, if Johnny keeps on taking random shots during basketballs practice while coach is instructing. The basketball session is divded into 3 parts. For the first phase, Johnny does the usual and the results are observed . it does alot. For 2nd phase, Johnny is told what he is doing and is told he will be reinforced at the end if he doesn’t do that. He does it way less than before.. For 3rd phase, Johnny’s reinforcer is taken away, Johnny does it more than 2nd phase but less than 1st phase.

Question 55

Define spaced-responding DRL and give an example?

Answer 55

Spaced-responding DRL, requires that a specified behaviour not occur during specific interval, and after the interval has passed, an instance of that behaviour much then occur in order for a reinforce to occur. For example, a student who always call out the correct the answers. Naturally we would not wish eliminate this child’s correct answering but to reduce calling out behaviour. Any target response that occurs after 15 minutes of the previous target response is immediately reinforced; any target response that occurs within 15 minutes of the previous target response is no reinforced.

Question 56

Describe in some detail two examples (at least one of which is not in text) of how DRL would be useful in treating a behaviour problem.

Answer 56

Tommy who averaged 1 talk-out every 9 min was allowed free play time near/at end of day if at end of a 50min session he would make 3 or fewer talk-outs (less than 1 every 17 min). During the program, he lasted an average of 1 talk-out every 54 min and he never exceeded the limit of 3 per session. When the reinforcement schedule was removed, his talk-out increased to an average of 1 every 33 min, although higher than rate during treatment procedure, it’s still lower than before the introduction of the procedure. (LR-DRL)
E.g. A young child who always wants to help mom out, but at times wants to help out with things that mom would rather do herself due to messiness or safety. To reduce the constant desire to help behavior to a more appropriate level, a target response that occurs after 45 min of the previous target response is immediately reinforced with say snacks; any target response that occurs within the 45min of the previous target response is not reinforced

Question 57

Examples of how a DRO might be useful in treating behavior problems:

Answer 57

Gerry, a 9-year-old boy of normal intelligence, scratched and rubbed his skin so severely that he had open sores all over his body. Because none of Gerry’s scratching and rubbing was tolerable, a DRO procedure is used. Researchers began with a schedule referred to as DRO 2 minutes. If the scratching occurred in the 2-minute interval, the interval started again. However, if the scratching did not occur (i.e., was at a zero rate), Gerry was given tokens that he could later exchange for access to TV, snacks, video games, and various play materials. Over several days, the DRO interval was increased to 4 minutes, then to 8, then to 15, and eventually to 30 minutes. Although initially applied in brief sessions, it was subsequently extended to the entire day.
2. A little boy tends to hit his younger brother. His parents told him that for every twenty minute interval that he does not hit his brother he can earn 2 minutes of extra video game time before bed time. However, if he hits his brother during the twenty minute interval, the interval starts again. The interval can be increased to 40 minutes, then 1 hour, and eventually extended to the entire day.