Final Exam Flashcards
(247 cards)
1
Q
define archaeology
A
the study of human past through traces of the past that exist in the present
2
Q
what are the four subfields of anthro?
A
cultural, physical or biological, linguistic, archaeology
3
Q
define text-aided archaeology
A
the study of ancient societies with the aid of written records
4
Q
define pre-historic archaeology
A
societies that do not have any written records
5
Q
define paleoanthropology
A
the anthropological study of the evolution of our species
6
Q
what is culture?
A
the invented, taught and learned patterns of behaviour of human groups
7
Q
what is material culture?
A
the physical objects that humans manufacture
8
Q
what are the 3 main characteristics of culture?
A
- passed from generation to generation (mainly through language)
- our primary way of adapting to our environment
- seen as interacting subsystems (economy, technology)
9
Q
define cultural ecology
A
the study of culture as a means of adapting to the environment
10
Q
what are the 2 theories of societal evolution?
A
unilinear evolution - all cultures developed from simple to complex
multi linear evolution - each society follows a unique evolutionary course
11
Q
what are the 3 mechanism of cultural change in the early 20th century?
A
invention - new idea
diffusion - transfer of an idea from group to group
migration - movement of idea from area to area
12
Q
who were the supposed first archaeologists?
A
Neo-Babylonian King Nabonidus (538 BCE) he rebuilt ancient temples and looked for inscriptions from earlier kings, remains to investigate past
13
Q
what was the belief about archaeology in the middle ages?(500-1300 CE)
A
only had knowledge of past from bible, believed the past was no different than the present
14
Q
who developed classical archaeology in the renaissance period? (1300s-1600s)
A
Italy, belief civilization declined, artifact collection was trendy among elite groups, uncontrolled digging, world in state of decline
15
Q
what was the main belief during the enlightenment period? (1700s)
A
the world was no longer seen as being in a state of decline, progress was being made, scientific discoveries by Newton and Galileo created growing confidence
16
Q
how did archaeological techniques develop during the 18th century?
A
- detailed studies and collection of artifacts from ancient sites
- stratigraphy and excavation techniques
- published results
- “grand tour” of sites for education
17
Q
what was the antiquarian impasse?
A
they assumed prehistoric sites could be best explained by written records, still believed the world was created in 4004 BCE and didn’t develop accurate chronology
18
Q
what is Hutton’s (1795) theory of uniformitarianism?
A
changes in the form of the earth’s surface are caused by natural forces still operating today (erosion, uplifting and deposition)
- could be used to determine age of geological features (rate of change)
19
Q
what is Frere’s (1797) discovery?
A
found deeply buried flint tools (handaxes) in England that were located below bones of extinct animals indicating great antiquity, conclusions ignored because of strong belief in bible
20
Q
what is Cuvier’s theory of catastrophism?
A
thought the earth had gone through several sudden catastrophes leading to the extinction of animals and laying down geological strata
eg. biblical flood, it was widely accepted
21
Q
what did Cuvier’s theory of catastrophism result in?
A
set back evolutionary studies many years because it was widely accepted because of religious beliefs
22
Q
what are the 3 major advancements made in the 19th century when it comes to archaeology?
A
- development of an evolutionary perspective on human origins
- advances in archaeological techniques
- advances in paleolithic archaeology
23
Q
when did Charles Darwin take his voyage on the HMS Beagle?
A
1831-36
24
Q
what scientist came to the same conclusions about natural selection as Darwin?
A
Alfred Russell WALLACE
25
what is the book Darwin published after competing with Wallace?
on the origin of species by means of natural selection (1859)
26
define natural selection
a mechanism for evolutionary change favouring the survival and reproduction of some organisms over others because of their biological characteristics
27
give an example of natural selection
- animals camouflage coloured coats are more likely to survive than those less camouflaged
28
what did Mendel discover when cross breading peas?
traits were passed on as individual units of hereditary information (genes)
29
which archaeologists refined excavation techniques?
Pitt-Rivers: used grid
| Petrie: refined seriation
30
define seriation
relative dating method in which assemblages or artifacts from numerous sites, in the same culture, are placed in chronological order
31
what is the myth of the mound builders brought during the 19th century american archaeology?
racist idea that the burial mounds in the Ohio valley were from ancient race of mound builders not native Americans, because they are assumed they were incapable of mound building
32
who disproved the myth of the mound builders?
Cyrus Thomas
33
who began Canadian archaeology?
Daniel Wilson: one of the first archaeologists to include data from the new world as well as the old world, opposed racial explanations for human behaviour
34
what was the belief of the unilinear evolution and who were the man contributors?
Tylor and Morgan: broad stages of development = savagery, barbarism, civilization
British dominance over non-European groups, seen as childlike and it was the duty of the British empire to civilize the world, Kiplings poem "white mans burden"
35
what were the main themes of 20th century archaeology?
primary cultural processes, diffusion and migration as explanations, rather than invention
36
what did Franz Boas promote?
cultural relativism: rejection of cultural evolution, cultures must be understood on their own terms, avoid ethnocentrism
37
who's theory reflected that of Adolf Hitler?
Gustof Kossina: supported the idea of a biologically pure master race
38
define theoretical contribution
the concept of the archaeological culture: each culture could be specified by geographic limits, a time period, and distinctive material culture
39
define theoretically sterile
did not learn about how people lived or how cultures changed through time, change was attributed to diffusion or migration
40
what terms were coined in the 60s and 70s and who coined them?
Binford introduced the "new" archaeology (processual archaeology) coined technomic, sociotechnic and ideotechnic to describe artifacts that operated in different cultural subsystems, all aspects of past cultural systems were accessible
41
what are the 4 contributions of the "new archaeology"?
1. archaeology as an evolutionary science
2. importance of culture ecology
3. cultures viewed as complex systems
4. strengthen archaeological interpretations by understanding the processes involved in the formation of archaeological sites
42
what are the main themes of post-processual archaeology? (80s-present)
symbolic and cognitive archaeology: interest in social relations, belief systems
agency: individuals and groups
gender studies: roles of the sexes, gender-related biases (Conkey and Gero)
43
what is reflexive archaeology?
controversial debate whether archaeologists discover a "real past" or if they "construct" the past based on their own experiences including their biases
44
what is the main theme of indigenous archaeology?
more involvement of native people in archaeology
45
what is cultural resource management?
archaeological work done in advance of land development, the largest part of the discipline today, public and private sector archaeologists
46
what are the 5 goals of archaeology?
1. to reconstruct past lifeways
2. to study culture history
3. to explain culture change
4. to understand how archaeological sites were formed as an aid to their interpretation
5. to understand the symbolic and ideological components of past societies
47
define the archaeological record
artifacts, sites and manufactured features that are the result of past human behaviour
48
define archaeological data
artifacts, ecofacts, architectural remains, archaeological sites and their spatial distributions
49
define artifact
any object made or used by humans (objects that show traces of human manufacture
50
define ecofact
non-artifical natural remains that have cultural significance, remains of biological organisms or the results of geological processes (bones, seeds, pollen, soil samples)
51
define archaeological features
non-portable artifacts ( a pit, a hearth, or a foundation) cannot usually be removed, in situ: in place
52
define archaeological site
a spatial cluster of artifacts, ecofacts and features
| eg. Teotihuacan, Mexico: largest prehistoric city in the new world
53
define behavioural processes
human behaviours in the past that led to deposition of artifacts or formation of residues
54
what are post-depositional transformation processes?
conditions and agents that affect archaeological materials after a site is abandoned
- natural or human agencies
- water and wind erosion
- animal scavengers, insects
- farming activities
- any earth moving activities
55
give examples of preservation by freezing
- the iceman 5000 BP, died in the italian alps in 2000 BP
| - John Torrington, sailor, franklin expedition, died in 1846, buried in nunavut, very well preserved
56
define the archaeological context
the culturally significant location of any object in an archaeological site
57
define provenience
the location of an artifact (or a fossil) in 3 dimensional space
58
define matrix
the material that surrounds and supports archaeological data (usually soil)
59
what is the law of association?
the principle that an object is broadly contemporary with other objects found in the same matrix or archaeological level
60
what is primary context?
the provenience of an artifact has not been disturbed since the artifact was deposited
61
what is secondary context?
results when natural or cultural post-depositional transformation processes have wholly or partially altered the provenience of an artifact
62
what are the 5 steps of research design?
1. formulation
2. data acquistion
3. data processing and analysis
4. interpretation
5. publication
63
why are archaeological surveys done?
done to find sites
| eg. pedestrian, test-pit, canoe, aerial photo, geographic information system etc.
64
explain how a GIS works
combines layers of digital mapped information (soil, topography, drainage) can be used to determine areas requiring archaeological survey prior to development
65
what are the 2 types of underwater survey?
proton magnetometer - detects iron objects
side-scan sonar - transmits sound waves to the bottom, produces a graphic image of ocean floor, used by parks Canada to find boats (HMS investigator discovered this way in july 2010)
66
what are techniques of remote sensing?
probes and corers
augers
geophysical techniques (ground penetrating radar)
67
what human activities occurred at specific point in time? is the __________ dimension of excavation
horizontal
68
how did activities change through time? is the ________ dimension of excavation
vertical
69
what is archaeological stratigraphy?
layers of archaeological debris and soil laid down by natural and cultural processes
70
what is the law of superposition?
in an undisturbed depositional sequence each layer is younger than the layer beneath it
71
what are the 2 categories of excavation techniques?
1. vertical, cutting deep, reveal stratigraphy (box-grid, Wheelers excavation in India)
2. horizontal, expose large area within a single layer (Sutton Hoo, England, open area excavation)
72
what are some characteristics of underwater archaeology?
expensive equipment (suction hoses, lifts to raise artifacts)
artifacts deteriorate in the water
usually make drawings and scale reproductions instead of raising vessels
73
what is the flotation technique of excavation?
used to recover small bones and artifacts, fill drum with water, box with mesh at bottoms, heavy materials sink and light float to top
74
what is the probe technique?
push medal rod into soil until you feel changes (wood/rock)
75
what is the core technique?
cylinder of soil to analyze layers beneath surface
76
what is the auger technique?
churn up soil and bring it to the top, does damage to site but deeply buried deposits are usually found
77
what are the 4 aspects of artifact processing?
1. artifact stabilization (done by museologists)
2. artifact cleaning
3. cataloguing
4. data entry to computer file
78
what is an artifact type?
a class of artifacts defined by lots of similar attributes eg. early paleoindian projectile point types in sw ontario
79
what is typology?
a list of artifact types for a particular archaeological context (material culture into types)
80
what does artifact spatial distributions refer to?
the spatial organization of artifacts within the site (identify activity areas, crucial to site interpretation)
81
what are diagnostic artifacts?
artifacts with characteristics of specific cultures/time periods
82
how do we make archaeological inferences?
use understanding of site formation processes (human behavioural and natural)
83
what do most archaeological inferences involve?
correlation between the archaeological data and site formation processes (human behavioural and natural) INFERENCE FROM ANALOGY
84
define ethnoarchaeology
archaeological studies of living societies, building analogies to support archaeological inferences eg. O'Connell in Tanzania
85
define analogy
a process of reasoning between parallel cses
86
define direct historic analogy
an analogy between archaeological remains and the historical record
87
define general comparative analogy
an analogy between archaeological remains and cultures that are not historically related
88
what is the order of the interpretive pyramid?
spatio-temporal analysis, techno-economic analysis, socio-political analysis, cultural analysis
89
define relative dating methods
determine whether something is relatively older or younger than something else
90
define absolute dating methods
provide estimates of dates in number of calendar years before present
91
what is the seriation relative dating methods?
based on style changes through time, "like goes with like"- artifacts that shore the same style usually belong to the same period
92
what is dendrochronology?
studying tree rings to determine date and environment during that time
93
what is radiocarbon dating?
based on the decay of the radioactive isotope carbon-14 to carbon-12, after death the amount of c-14 decreases as it decays at a constant rate, age is determined by the amount of c-14 remaining
94
what is potassium argon dating?
based on the decay of potassium-40 and accumulation of argon-40 half life is 1.3 billion years and sets to zero after the rock is formed
95
what is single-crystal argon dating?
the amounts of argon-39 relative to argon-40 measured to calculate age
96
what is obsidian hydration dating?
obsidian absorbs water at a steady rate, creating a hydration band on the outer surface, measure the thickness and apply formula to determine age
97
what is thermoluminescence dating?
measures the electrons that have accumulated in the object since it was last heated, sample is heating and electrons emit light, more light, the greater time has lapsed
98
what is paleoethnobotany?
floral analysis?
99
what is macrobotanical analysis?
seeds, nuts and wood
100
what is microscopic analysis?
phytolith-particles of silixa on stems and leaves
palynology-fossilized pollen
plant residue analysis-plant fibres on tools
101
what is zooarchaeology?
faunal analysis, determines species hunted, early animal domestication
102
what is taphonomy?
the study of post-depositional processes that affect faunal assmeblages
103
how do archaeologists reconstruct economies?
analysis of trade and exchange, based on recovery of exotic artifacts or trace element analysis
104
how do archaeologists reconstruct technology?
examining manufacturing processes, and the functions
105
what are characteristics of bands?
less than 100, informal leadership, mobile hunter-gatherers
106
what are characteristics of tribes?
a few thousand people, farmers and herders, several sub-groups, common defense, leaders achieve status
107
what are characteristics of chiefdoms?
pop 5000-20000, ascribed status, social ranking
108
what are characteristics of states?
pop greater than 20000, urbanized, social hierarchy
109
define natural selection
individuals with characteristics best suited to their environment have the greatest chance for survival and have more reproductive success
110
define adaptive radiation
occurs when a species migrates into new ecological zones and adapts, leading to more variation and eventually to the emergence of a new species
111
define evolution
change in the genetic make-up of a population from one generation to the next
112
define population
a group of interbeeding individuals
113
define genetic variation
is produced by mutation (a random change in a gene) and genetic recombination (when an egg cell combines with a sperm cell)
114
taxonomic classification
| kingdom, class, order, family, genus, species
animal, mammals, primates, hominidae, homo, sapiens
115
what are the 4 physical characteristics of primates?
1. grasping hand
2. pads and fingernails
3. binocular stereoscopic vision
4. expanded brain
116
who is apart of the superfamily hominoidea?
gorillas, chimps, orangutans, modern humans and direct ancestors
117
who is apart of subfamily homininae?
chimps and humans
118
who is apart of tribe hominini?
members of the human lineage after they split from chimpanzee lineage
119
tranditional classification is _______ while the revised classification is _________
hominid, hominin
120
what are characteristics of oligocene primates? (35-23 mya)
good vision, smaller, adaptations for arboreal life, may be ancestral to old world monkeys and apes
121
who are the 2 subdivisions of miocene primates (23-5.2 mya)
```
proconsul africanus (Africa) 22-18 mya, baboon sized, slow moving
sivapithecus (Turkey, India, Pakistan) 12-7 mya, similar to modern orangutan
```
122
what are some main changes in from hominoid-hominin changes related to bipedalism?
change in spine: arc shape to S-shape
change in feet: prehensile appendages to walking platforms
change in shape of pelvis: shovel to basin
foremen magnum moves from back of the skull toward the centre
123
what is the human dental pattern?
2-1-2-3
124
what are the 7 areas of the human skull?
occipital, temporal, parietal, frontal, zygomatic arch, maxilla, mandible
125
what evolutionary changes have happened in the cranium?
increase in cranial capacity (brain size), decrease in brow ridges, decrease in the position of the maxilla, changes in dental structure
126
what are the 2 classes of early homo? and characteristics?
homo habilis, homo rudolfensis, larger brain, well developed foot, molars, long arms
127
what are the aspects of archaeological evidence for early human behaviour?
central places, hunting and scavenging, toolmaking and social organization
128
what is a core?
parent stone or cobble
129
what is a flake?
detached piece
130
hard hammer?
stone
131
soft hammer?
wood, bone or antler
132
what are characteristics of early hominin social organization and culture?
sexual division or labour, long-term pairs, bipedalism, tool use, passed knowledge from generation to generation, no rituals
133
explain the oxygen isotope curve
deep sea cores contain tiny organisms that are made of calcium carbonate, they can be analyzed for 2 isotopes, o16 and o18, cold periods = glaciers expand, oceans contract, high ratio of o18 to o16, warm periods = glaciers retreat, oceans expand, low ratio of o18 to o16
134
what are some physical characteristics of homo erectus?
long projecting face, prominent brow ridge, broad nose, thick skull bones, no chin, smaller molars
135
first signs of fire?
kenya, south africa
136
what are some characteristics of homo erectus social organization and culture?
debates around central places, little evidence of rituals, some sort of resting place for the dead
137
what distinguished early/archaic homo sapiens from homo erectus?
larger cranial capacity, 1125-1400 cc vs. 960 cc, rounded cranial vault
138
what are the 3 scenarios for the evolution of neanderthals?
1. neanderthals and modern humans evolved separate from homo erectus in different geographical regions
2. common ancestor from homo erectus than neanderthals and modern humans diverged from there
3. constant gene flow between neanderthals and modern human populations as they evolved from homo erectus in europe and africa
139
what is the genetic evidence scientists found between neanderthals and modern homo sapiens
successfully sequenced mtDNA from a neanderthal fossil and compared it to modern homo sapiens, lots of difference therefore some researchers are convinced they belong in their own classification as homo neanderthalensis
140
list same traits of neanderthals
lower face, larger nasal cavity, large cheekbones, prominent brow ridges, large front teeth, small chin, short and thick
141
what is the main difference between middle eastern and classic neanderthals?
middle eastern neanderthals have an occipital bun
142
what are some characteristics of the neanderthal economy and social organization?
hunted small-medium sized animals, reindeer, lived in groups of 25-50 people, caves and open air structures, informal leadership, grave offerings and rituals, belief systems
143
when was the intense glacial period that the neanderthals lived through? (upper pleistocene)
71,000-59,000 BP
144
what are some physical characteristics of anatomically modern homo sapiens?
high round cranial vault, brow ridges reduced, face juts out less, chin, long and slender skeleton
145
what are characteristics of the upper paleolithic economy?
large game hunting, migrating herds, broadened subsistence base, lots of rituals, mammoth bone structure
146
what are characteristics of the home life in the upper paleolithic?
maximize exposure to light, hot stones to boil water, tailored clothing, traded with mediterranean and atlantic inland
147
what are the major themes of paleolithic artwork?
hunting magic, fertility item, male and female symbolism, tracking time, calendrical systems, visions, just because, new level of cultural development, proof of increasing intelligence levels
148
what are some characteristics of the flores man? (homo floresiensis)
found in island of flores, 1 metre tall (because of inbreeding), 18,000-38,000 yrs old, primitive and advanced traits, prominent brow ridge, small teeth, descended from homo erectus
149
what is some evidence of hunter-gatherers in australia?
deeply buried tools (nauwalabila) skeletons, hearths and stone artifacts (lake mungo) extinct megafuana found with stone tools (cuddie springs) procoptodon: a large kangaroo, genyornis: flightless bird
150
what was the tool technology like in australia?
conservative, scrapers, choppers, axes, not as advanced
151
when was tasmania first occupied?
35,000 BP
152
what happened when tasmania was cut off from the mainland due to rising water levels at the end of the pleistocene?
had no hafted tools at time of european contact, technology did not advance since they were cut off, similar to 12,000 BP in australia (pre-cutoff) almost died off
153
what did Hrdlicka prove?
a genetic basis for the asian origins of north american indians
154
what did Turner prove?
naive american and northern asian populations share a set of dental characteristics called sinodonty (shovel-shaped incisors)
155
what was found in folsom, new mexico?
1927: found a late pleistocence species of bison and projectile point close to eachother, provided confirmation of "american paleolithic) Kidder
156
what are some characteristics of paleo-indian cultures?
radiocarbon dated to 13,500-12,500 yrs ago, fluted bifaces, knives, gravers, blade technology, hunters of large mammals including extinct megafauna
157
what are the 3 competing hypotheses of the settlement of the clovis culture?
1. clovis first: settlement at the end of the wisconsin glaciation by Clovis people, 13,500-12,500 yrs ago
2. pre-clovis: settlement during the wisconsin glaciation, prior to 13,500 yrs. ago
3. early arrival: human arrival in the americas began as early as 30,000 to 40,000 yrs. ago
158
what is beringia?
landmass between siberia and alaska, unglaciated, found because of environmental reconstruction of fossils, pollen and insects, taken over by water 11,000 yrs ago
159
what are the 3 sites in beringia?
dyuktai, proto-dyuktai, nenana
160
what are characteristics of the dyuktai tradition in beringia?
stone tool industry, projectile points, knives, microblades, flake tools
161
what are characteristics of the proto-dyuktai tradition in beringia?
stone tool assemblages, chopper, pebble cores, worked mammoth bone, questioned if it was redeposited
162
what are characteristics of the nenana complex in beringia?
flake and core technology, well made bifacial points, end scrapers and side scrapers
163
what are components of an explanation for settlement of the clovis culture?
- donor population in northeastern asia prior to proposed migration
- a route from beringia to the south
- archaeological evidence of human presence: undoubted cultural remains from good stratigraphic context, securely dated
164
what are the 2 believed routes to the south during the settlement of the clovis culture?
ice-free corridor: (Levson and Rutter) was closed throughout the late wisconsin glaciation
west coast route: (Fladmark) based on 2 sites found in inter-tidal location haida gwai
165
what are some general traits of paleo-indian complexes?
1. well made leaf shapes (fluted vs. non-fluted)
2. large animal hunting (mammoth, long-horned bison)
3. 13,500-12,000 yrs ago, calibrated calendrical date
166
what are some characteristics of the folsom culture? (12,500-12,000)
smaller fluted than clovis, bison hunting was the main, drove them over cliffs, known for non-fluted eden points
167
what are some aspects of early paleoindian complexes in southern ontario? (12,900-12,000)
entered from the south as glacial ice retreated, environment in transition from tundra to boreal forest
168
why did the parkhill complex make seasonal movements?
to intercept caribou migrations along the L. Algonquin shoreline and acquire chert (stone for tool making)
169
why did hunters favour male bison?
higher fat content in meat and bone marrow
170
what are medicine wheels? (6,000 ya - historic times)
ceremonial structures found in plains, circular stone structures and straight stone alignments, tied to ceremony, may have astronomical arrangements, some still used today
171
what is the desert archaic?
series of caves and plains in the great basin (nevada, utah, idaho, arizona), patchy resources, hunting rabbits, bighorn sheep, lovelock cave contained alot of crafty things such as sandals, basketry, duck decoys
172
what are traits of grooved bannerstones?
winged type, possibly atlatl weights, highly polished (looks like a pair of lungs)
173
what are ground stones used for?
used for wood working and chopping
174
what happened that was beneficial during the eastern archaic period? (12,000-3,000 years ago)
altithermal, dry period, rivers and river valleys stabilized creating favourable aquatic environments (shallow water, shoals and swamps) more fish and shellfish to hunt
175
what were the settlement patterns of the eastern archaic?
came back to the same place each year based on burial within large occupied sites, dependent on the seasons, spring/summer went close to rivers, fall/winter dispersed into smaller groups into the inland
176
what are some characteristics of the Koster site during the eastern archaic period?
expanded from 5 acres to village between 7,500-4000 BCE, net fishing, collecting shellfish, collecting seeds, cultivation of squash, sunflower, goosefoot
177
what is the order of the east wall profile in the davidson site?
top- ploughzone, sterile silty clay (flood deposits), midden-like deposit (thick black hummic layer)
178
what are some traits of the maritime archaic time? (9000-3500 yrs. ago)
adapted to maritime resources, toggling harpoons, mixed economy (caribou, beaver, walrus, fish) closer to river in warmer weather, inland during colder season, died out in 1829 because of starvation disease,
179
what are the 5 groups during the arctic prehistory?
nenana complex (14,000-12,800 yrs ago.) aleutian tradition (8700 - modern times) pre-dorset paleo eskimo/artic small tool tradition (4500-3000 BP) dorset paleo-eskimo (3000-1000 BP) thule/inuit (1000 BP-modern times)
180
what are some characteristics of the pre-dorset paleo-eskimo/arctic small tool tradition? (4500-3000 BP)
expanded east from alaska, mos of greenland, local resources varied as did their diet, tents, snow houses, turf houses, used soapstone lamps to light and heat snow houses, kayaks
181
what are some differences from pre-dorset and dorset paleo-eskimo?
larger sites, more stable diet, semi-subterranean houses on the coast in fall and snowhouse communities in the winter, had artwork of humans, birds, head-headed spears, bear carving
182
what are some characteristics of the thule/inuit group?
distinct whale hunting culture, float harpoon, hunted from kayaks, dogs and sleds for transport, winter houses (dome shaped roof supported by whale ribs, covered with sod) winter = ceremony, games, carving, art, in summer moved to skin tents on beach for mammal hunting
183
what artwork that is famous today did the thule and inuit groups bring to nunavut?
inuksuit and inuksuk
184
what are the differences between hunter and gatherers and famers?
farmers have poorer nutrition, more disease and shorter life expectancy
185
when did people turn to food production?
when other subsistence alternatives were no longer viable
186
define domestication
a relationship between humans and plants and animals wherein humans play an integral role in the protection and reproduction of plants and animals
187
define symbiotic
an interdependent or mutally beneficial relationship between 2 organisms
188
define agriculture
a way of life relying on domestication of plants and animals, involved human efforts to modify the environments of plants in animals and increase their productivity and usefulness
189
what is incipient agriculture?
involves the modification of the environment to manage the food supply and reduce risk (slash and burn technique)
190
what are some changes in plants that happen with domestication?
changes in seed dispersal systems, change from brittle to tough rachis in wheat (stem attaching grain seed to stalk) change from brittle to flexible pods in beans, larger and more seeds
191
what are some changes in animals that happen with domestication?
smaller size, more docile, changes in skeletal morphology, more males because breeding females are not slaughtered
192
what are some techniques used in the search for agricultural origins?
genetic analysis at the molecular level, flotation for seeds, ams carbon-14 dating of seeds, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) recognized subtle changes in seed morphology
193
how did humans perspective of themselves change in relation to food production?
humans started to see themselves as being outside the environment rather than a piece to the puzzle, tried to control the environment and succeeded
194
what are the 2 main changes in technology that came about during food production?
1. control of land, land clearing, slash and burn cultivation, digging tools
2. control of water, pot and canal irrigation, terracing (steps)
3. harvesting (refinement of the sickle)
4. storage (pots, corrals)
5. processing (mortars and pestles)
195
how did communities change with the onset of food production?
larger work groups, population increase, more complex political organization, more trade (because of more resources) increased warfare
196
what early theories have been proposed to explain agricultural origins?
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neolithic revolution (Childe): warmer weather brought animals closer together therefore food production (didn't make much sense)
nuclear zone hypothesis (Braidwood): began in areas that were natural habitats for grains as a result of experimentation, wasnt supported because found farming outside "nuclear zones"
population pressure (Boserup and Cohen): farming developed as a response to world-wide population pressure, too simplistic
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197
what are multivariate theories to explain agricultural origins?
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social theory (Bender): increase in social complexity put pressure on societies to begin producing food surpluses, supported by grave offerings, increased trade
marginal zone model (Binford and Flannery): people living in marginal environments are most likely to experiment with new methods of food production
risk reductio and feasting (Hayden): reduced risk of not having food and having to compete with hunter-gatherers, increased reliability
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198
what is the co-evolutionary theory to explain agricultural origins?
Flannery and Rindos: (guila naquitz, oaxaca valley): people became agents of artificial selection becuase favoured food plants for immediate benefits, experimented more in wet years
199
what is Bruce Smiths theory of agricultural origins?
farming came about the same way in levant, southern sahara and eastern north america, seed plants are domesticated by affluent societies in rich, well-watered areas
200
what is the mesolithic period?
transitional period between the paelolithic and neolithic, they widened the food base, new speciailized equipment, adaptations to new environments (desert, grasslands), better hunting-gathering techniques
201
what was the near east like 10,000-15,000 years ago?
cooler, wetter, more diverse plants and animals, wild wheat and barley, almond and pistachio trees
202
describe some characteristics of the natufian culture
intensive harvesters of wild wheat and barley, gazelle hunting (used communal drive techniques), stayed in one place, mediterranean hill zone, coastal plains, grassland valleys, social ranking in burial practices
203
what are the 3 periods of the early neolithic cultures?
pre-pottery neolithic a (12,000-10,800), pre-pottery neolithic b (10,800-8500), late neolithic (8,000-7,000)
204
what are some characteristics of the early neolithic in the levantine corridor?
netiv hagdud, israel
jordan river, oval mud brick housing with 20-30 families, becoming stable, cultivated a two-row barely with a tough rachis, could be wild
205
what did the gilgal in the jordan valley domesticate? PPNA (pre pottery neolithic a)
figs, they were not capable of reproducing without human intervention (branches must be cut off and planted)
206
what was different about the skeletons found in abu hureyra, syria?
deformation, thickening of upper vertebrae in neck because of carrying heavier loads, and deformed toes from kneeling to grind grains
207
what did archaeologists infer from the massive stone wall found in jericho, jordan?
would have needed to coordinate labour therefore showed signs of more complex social organization
208
what was the plastered skull in jericho evidence of?
ancestor cult
209
what was the communal set up of in jerf el-ahmer syria?
residential surface structures surround a large circular semi-subterranean structure, interpreted as a communal structure, community planning? therefore more advanced, skeleton with no head found in centre chamber, this could be evidence of communal ritual violence
210
what are the 3 groups of the zagros and mesopotamia? and what are characteristics of them?
shanidar: hunter-gatherers, managed sheep, harvested wild plants
ganj dareh: herding goats and cattle, domesticated 2-row barely
ali kosh: herded sheep and goats, wheat, barley, lentils, simple canals
jarmo: 25 mud brick houses, wheat and barley, trade, clay tokens may indicate record keeping
211
what were the 1960s excavation of the ali kosh site first to use?
fine screening and flotation to recover small plant and animal remains
212
what is the gobekli tepe in turkey?
an ancient temple in south eastern turkey, dated to the late pre pottery neolithic a and b, 7 stone circles (30-100 feet in diameter), no ceramics only stone and bone, excavated between 1995 and 2005, pillars carved with animal figure reliefs
213
why were arcchaeologists surprised by the gobekli tepe temple in turkey?
because it was way advanced for the people living there, they were still hunter-gatherers yet they manufactured such a huge and elaborate temple
214
what are characteristics of early farming sites in anatolia during the late neolithic period?
cayonu, 4 periods of construction, 100 to 200 people, 25-50 houses, rectangular houses with stone foundations, cultivated wheat, combo of wild and domesticated plants and animals, "skull room" 450 skeletons, 49 burnt, may have been displayed on shelves
215
what was unique about the caal huyuk location?
architecture: square mudbrick houses in "apartment block" form, entrances through the roof, 4000-6000 people
216
what was the catal huyuk "shrine room" used for?
one group of high status burials, control of obsidian trade, kept art
217
what does SE europe include?
greece, area around and northeast part of mediterranean
218
what does temperate europe include?
area north of the mediterranean but south of the boreal forest regions of scadinavia
219
when does farming first appear in the near east?
11,000 BP and in europe 2500 years later
220
how did cultivated plants and animals arrive to greece? eg. franchti cave (8000 BP)
trade and diffusion
221
what are some characteristics of nea nikamedeia greece?
superimposed structures, long-term occupation, ceremonial structure with 5 female figurines, domesticated animals and plants
222
describe the early farming site karanovo in europe
small villages, one room wattle and daub houses, wheat, barley, sheep and goats, located on optimal soils, had trade connections to the mediterranean
223
who are the bandkeramik?
migrated north and west along european river valleys and settled on fertile loess (windblown) soils
224
describe the bandkeramik culture
lived in hamlets made up of several farmsteads (40-60 people) house made of timber and thatch, domesticated barley, wheat, cattle, sheep, goats and dogs, co-existed with mesolithic hunter-gatherers
225
describe the transition of megalithic tombs
6500 BP: european neolithic groups started building long barrows, made of large stones covered in soil, used for communal burials, some megalithic tombs were used for individual burials representing increased individual power and prestige in 4800 BP
226
what technology was introduced 5600 yrs ago?
plow, wasn't popular until 4600 years ago, draft animals (oxen) horse back riding etc. allowed tilling of larger soils
227
list 5 new world domesticates
maize, beans, squash, chili peppers, sunflower, marsh elder, goosefoot, tobacco, cacao, peanuts, cotton, quinoa, gourds, manioc, sweet potatoes, white potatoes, llama, alpaca, guinea pig (south america) turkey (mesoamerica) domestic dog
228
what was discovered at guila naquitz in the valley of oaxaca in mesoamerica?
stratified rock shelter, domesticated gourds and squashes (cucurbita family) domesticated unintentionally through seedbed selection
229
what is seedbed selection?
smaller seed sprouts are thinned out, leading to artificial selection of larger more productive plants
230
what makes domesticated maize different from teosinte?
teosinte seed spikes shatter spreading seeds naturally, maize cobs do not shatter
231
what did MacNeish discover in th tehuacan valley in mesoamerica?
12,000 year occupation in that area, diet was 90% plant food by 6500 years ago, showed evolution of maize through different caves
232
how did the san andres site in tabasco mesoamerica support bruce smiths theory that earliest farming should be found in rich lowland areas?
maize pollen identified dated to 7,000 years ago
233
what are the 3 sisters and why are they called this?
maize, squash, beans, consuming all 3 provides a well-rounded diet
234
what was the lifestyle like for the cochise culture in the american southwest?
archaic period hunter-gatherers, south arizona and new mexico, desert adaptation (hunted small animals, yucca seeds, cactus, sunflower seeds) good organic preservation
235
what is the optimal foraging theory?
assumes that choices made about subsistence reflect rational self-interest, eg. later archaic hunter-gatherers in the southwest were making rational decisions about whether to adopt agriculture
236
what did the las capas site do that not many others were?
used canals to irrigate maize fields with water from the santa cruz river
237
when did maize farming spread into the upland regions of the mogollon highlands?
around 3000 BP
238
what is the late archaic poverty point culture? (4200-2600)
louisiana, along mississippi river, 100+ sites, 10 regional cluters, widespread trade, no evidence of farming yet
239
what are features of the poverty point site?
very large, 494 acres, semi-circular earth ridges, 2 m high, 20 m across, may have had houses atop them, elaborately planned village? mound A would have required 10,000,000 baskets load full of soil
240
what does the features of poverty point culture show?
mound building = increased socio-political complexity, not much status differentiation
no farming based on intense hunting and gathering
more political organization
may have been a focal point for feasting events
241
what are some characteristics of the early woodland adena culture?
centered in the ohio river drainage, regional variance, best known for burial mounds, people of high status were buried in log chambers in base of mounds, common folk were cremated and buried in mound fill, long distance trade was important
242
why was the great serpent mound in ohio significant?
it had spiritual and ceremonial significance
243
what are some characteristics of the middle woodland hopewell culture? (2200-1700 BP)
interaction sphere: mississippi drainage north into ny state and southern ontario, traded exotics (copper, silver ear spools, bracelets, mica cutouts) lived in small hamlets, huddled around ceremonial centres and mounds, "vacant centre pattern"- sees the hopewell earthworks as the vacant core of a dispersed settlement system
244
how did archaeologists discover that it took a long time for maize to become a staple until 900-1000 years ago?
demonstrated by stable isotope analysis of human bone, maize has a high ratio of c-13 to c-12, other plants have low ratio, there was only a high ratio after 900 years although maize appeared 1500 years ago
245
what was the first evidence of farming in ontario?
the princess point complex (650-900 CE)
246
what were settlement patterns like at princess point ontario?
Stother: macroband camps from spring to fall farming maize, smaller camps during winter
Smith and Crawford: macroband in permanent locations within the grand river valley, variety of hamlets in one location
247
what are some characteristics of alder creek site, near kitchener?
upland location, faunal evidence for a cold season occupation, beaver and muskrat, follows stothers theory for princess point (changing locations) transition to farming took a long time
