final exam

Question 1

What percent of neural tissue does the brain have?

Answer 1

97%

Question 2

Be familiar with how the brain develops

Answer 2

This lateral view of the brain of an embryo after 4 weeks of development shows the neural tube, the hollow cylinder that is the beginning of the central nervous system. The internal passageway is called the neurocoel. In the cephalic portion of the neural tube, three areas enlarge rapidly through expansion of the internal cavity. This enlargement creates three prominent divisions called primary brain vesicles. The primary brain vesicles are named for their relative positions.

By week 5 of development, the primary brain vesicles have changed position and the prosencephalon and rhombencephalon have subdivided, forming secondary brain vesicles.

As development continues, the cerebrum enlarges to the point where it covers other portions of the brain

Question 3

mesencephalon

Answer 3

or “midbrain,” is an expansion caudal to the prosencephalon.

Question 4

prosencephalon

Answer 4

or “forebrain,” is at the tip of the neural tube.

Question 5

rhombencephalon

Answer 5

or “hindbrain,” is the most caudal of the primary brain vesicles; it is continuous with the spinal cord

Question 6

diencephalon

Answer 6

becomes the major relay and processing center for information headed to and from the cerebrum

Question 7

telencephalon

Answer 7

begins to expand rapidly, eventually becoming the cerebrum, the largest part of the adult brain.

Question 8

metencephalon

Answer 8

is adjacent to the mesencephalon. The region will form the cerebellum and the pons of the adult brain.

Question 9

myelencephalon

Answer 9

will become the medulla oblongata

Question 10

cerebrum

Answer 10

is divided into a pair of large cerebral hemispheres. the surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres are highly folded and covered by a superficial layer of gray matter called the cerebral cortex. Functions include conscious thought, memory storage and processing, sensory processing, and the regulation of skeletal muscle contractions.

Question 11

Fissures (cerebrum)

Answer 11

deep grooves that subdivide the cerebral hemisphere.

Question 12

Gyri (cerebrum)

Answer 12

folds in the cerebral cortex that increase its surface area

Question 13

Sulci (cerebrum)

Answer 13

shallow depressions in the cerebral cortex that separate adjacent gyri

Question 14

diencephalon

Answer 14

the structural and functional link between the cerebral hemispheres and the rest of the CNS

Question 15

thalamus (diencephalon)

Answer 15

contains relay and processing centers for sensory information.

Question 16

hypothalamus (diencephalon)

Answer 16

or floor of the dicencephalon, contains centers involved with emotions, autonomic function, and hormone production.

Question 17

Brain stem

Answer 17

includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

Question 18

midbrain (brain stem)

Answer 18

contains nuclei that process visual and auditory information and control reflexes triggered by these stimuli. It also contains centers that help maintain consciousness

Question 19

pons (brain stem)

Answer 19

connects the cerebellum to the brain stem. In addition to tracts and relay centers, the pons also contains nuclei that function in somatic and visceral motor control.

Question 20

medulla oblongata

Answer 20

relays sensory information to other portions of the brain stem and to the thalamus. The medulla oblongata also contains major centers that regulate autonomic function, such as heart rate and blood pressure.

Question 21

Ventricles

Answer 21

During development, the neurocoel within the cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, metencephalon, and medulla oblongata expands to form chambers called ventricles

The ventricles are filled with CSF and lined by ependymal cells.

Question 22

Ventricles of the brain (lateral ventricle)

Answer 22

Each cerebral hemisphere contains a lateral ventricle

Question 23

Ventricles of the brain (interventricular foramen)

Answer 23

Each lateral ventricle communicates with the third ventricle through an interventricular foramen

Question 24

Ventricles of the brain (third ventricle)

Answer 24

The third ventricle is located in the diencephalon

Question 25

Ventricles of the brain (aqueduct of the midbrain)

Answer 25

the aqueduct of the midbrain is a slender canal within the midbrain that connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle.

Question 26

Ventricles of the brain (fourth ventricle)

Answer 26

The fourth ventricle begins in the metencephalon and extends into the superior portion of the medulla oblongata. It then narrows and becomes the central canal of the spinal cord

Question 27

How many ventricles are there in the brain?

Answer 27

4

Question 28

corpus callosum

Answer 28

a thick tract of white matter that interconnects the two cerebral hemispheres

Question 29

septum pellucidum

Answer 29

a partition that separates the two lateral ventricles.

Question 30

cranial meninges

Answer 30

The delicate tissues of the brain are protected by mechanical forces with the help of these

Question 31

[1] Dura Mater (cranial meninges)

Answer 31

The cranial dura mater consists of outer and inner fibrous layers. The outer layer is fused to the periosteum of the cranial bones. As a result there is no epidural space. The outer (endosteal) and inner (meningeal) layers of the cranial dura mater are typically separated by a slender gap that contains tissue fluids and blood vessels, including several large dural sinuses, which collect blood from the veins of the brain. ``` Dural mater (endosteal layer) Dural sinus Dural mater (meningeal layer) ```

Question 32

[2] Arachnoid mater (cranial meninges)

Answer 32

The cranial arachnoid mater consists of the arachnoid membrane and the arachnoid trabeculae (which connect to the pia mater). The arachnoid membrane provides a smooth covering that does not follow the brain's underlying folds. The subarachnoid space lies between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater. Arachnoid membrane Subarachnoid space Arachnoid trabeculae

Question 33

[3] Pia mater (cranial meninges)

Answer 33

Astrocyte processes bind the pia mater to the surface of the brain. The pia mater sticks to the surface of the brain. It extends into every fold and accompanies the branches of cerebral blood vessels as they penetrate the surface of the brain to reach internal structures.

Question 34

dural folds

Answer 34

sheets that dip inward and then return. These provide additional stabilization and support to the brain

Question 35

Dural sinuses

Answer 35

large collecting veins located within the dural folds (there are 3 large dural folds)

Question 36

falx cerebri

Answer 36

a fold of dura mater that projects between the cerebral hemispheres. Its inferior portions attach anteriorly to the crista galli and posteriorly to the internal occipital crest of the occipital bone. The superior and inferior sagittal sinuses lie within this dural fold.

Question 37

superior sagittal sinus

Answer 37

the largest dural sinus

Question 38

tentorium cerebelli

Answer 38

separates the cerebral hemispheres from the cerebellum.

Question 39

falx cerebelli

Answer 39

separates the two cerebellar hemispheres along the midsagittal line inferior to the tentorium cerebelli

Question 40

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Answer 40

completely surrounds and bathes the exposed surfaces of the CNS. The CSF circulates from the choroid plexuses through the ventricles and fills the central canal of the spinal cord. As it circulates, materials diffuse between the CSF and the interstitial fluid of the CNS across the ependymal cells.

Question 41

Choroid plexuses

Answer 41

Each of the ventricles contains an area of choroid plexus, which consists of a combination of specialized ependymal cells and capillaries involved in the production of and maintenance of CSF.

Question 42

medulla oblongata

Answer 42

all communication between the brain and spinal cord involves tracts that ascend or descend through the medulla oblongata is a center for the coordination of relatively complex autonomic reflexes and the control of visceral functions.

Question 43

tracts (medulla oblongata)

Answer 43

Descending tracts cover the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata

Question 44

Olive (medulla oblongata)

Answer 44

the olive is a prominent olive-shaped bulge along the anterolateral surface of the medulla oblongata. It follows the contours of the olivary nucleus.

Question 45

pyramids (medulla oblongata)

Answer 45

the pyramids contain tracts of motor fibers that originate at the cerebral cortex. some of the pyramidal fibers cross over to the opposite side of the medulla as they descend into the spinal cord. That crossing is called a decussation.

Question 46

autonomic centers (medulla oblongata)

Answer 46

control vital functions

Question 47

relay stations (medulla oblongata)

Answer 47

located along sensory and motor pathways

Question 48

(medulla oblongata gray matter component & function)- Nucleus gracilis, nucleus cuneatus

Answer 48

relay somatic sensory information to the thalamus

Question 49

(medulla oblongata gray matter component & function)- Olivary nuclei

Answer 49

Located within the olives; relay information from the red nucleus, other nuclei of the midbrain, and the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum

Question 50

(medulla oblongata gray matter component & function)- Solitary nucleus

Answer 50

integrates and relays visceral sensory information to autonomic processing centers

Question 51

Autonomic reflex center-(medulla oblongata gray matter component & function)- Cardiac Centers

Answer 51

regulate heart rate and force of contraction

Question 52

Autonomic reflex center-(medulla oblongata gray matter component & function)- Vasomotor Centers

Answer 52

regulate distribution of blood flow

Question 53

Autonomic reflex center-(medulla oblongata gray matter component & function)- Respiratory Rhythmicity Centers

Answer 53

Set the pace of respiratory movements

Question 54

Other nuclei/centers-(medulla oblongata gray matter component & function)

Answer 54

Contain sensory and motor nuclei of cranial nerves VIII (in part), IX, X, XI (in part), and XII; relay ascending sensory inforamtion from the spinal cord to higher centers

Question 55

(medulla oblongata white matter component and function0- Ascending and Descending Tracts

Answer 55

Link the brain with the spinal cord

Question 56

pons

Answer 56

the pons link the cerebellum with the midbrain, diencephalon, cerebrum, medulla oblongata, and spinal cord.

Question 57

reticular formation (pons)

Answer 57

a loosely organized mass of gray matter that contains embedded nuclei and centers that regulate vital autonomic functions. It extends from the medulla oblongata to the mesencephalon.

Question 58

(pons and gray matter component and function)- Nuclei Associated With Cranial Nerves V,VI,VII, and VIII (in part)

Answer 58

relay sensory information and issue somatic motor commands

Question 59

(pons and gray matter component and function)- Apneustic and Pneumotaxic Centers

Answer 59

adjust activities of the respiratory rhythmicity centers in the medulla oblongata

Question 60

(pons and gray matter component and function)- Relay Centers

Answer 60

relay sensory and motor information to the cerebellum

Question 61

(pons and white matter component and function)- Ascending Tracts

Answer 61

carry sensory information from the nucleus cuneatus and nucleus gracilis to the thalamus

Question 62

(pons and white matter component and function)- Descending Tracts

Answer 62

carry motor commands from higher centers to motor nuclei of cranial or spinal nerves

Question 63

(pons and white matter component and function)- Transverse Fibers

Answer 63

interconnect processing centers in the cerebellar hemispheres

Question 64

cerebellum

Answer 64

an automatic processing center that monitors proprioceptive, visual, tactile, balance, and auditory sensations. It has 2 primary functions: 1) Adjusting the postural muscles of the body 2) Programming and fine-tuning movements controlled at the conscious and subconscious levels.

Question 65

vermis (cerebellum)

Answer 65

the vermis is a narrow band of cortex that separates the cerebellar hemispheres

Question 66

primary fissure (cerebellum)

Answer 66

the anterior and posterior lobes are separated by the primary fissure

Question 67

cerebellum lobes

Answer 67

the cerebellum has 2 large anterior and posterior lobes. Like the cerebrum, the cerebellum has 2 hemispheres and the surface is covered with a layer of gray matter-the cerebellar cortex

Question 68

folia (cerebellum)

Answer 68

the folia are folds of the cerebellar surface. They are less prominent than the folds in the surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres

Question 69

purkinje cells

Answer 69

a large, branching neuron of the cerebellar cortex

Question 70

cerebellar peduncles

Answer 70

tracts that link the cerebellum with the brain stem, cerebrum, and spinal cord form 3 cerebellar peduncles on each side superior cerebellar peduncle middle cerebellar peduncle inferior cerebellar peduncle

Question 71

arbor vitae (cerebellum)

Answer 71

the white matter of the cerebellum forms a branching array that in sectional view resembles a tree. Anatomists call it the arbor vitae, or "tree of life."

Question 72

(cerebellum gray matter component and function)- Cerebellar Cortex & Cerebellar Nuclei

Answer 72

involuntary coordination and control of ongoing body movements

Question 73

(cerebellum white matter component and function)- Arbor Vitae

Answer 73

connects cerebellar cortex and nuclei with cerebellar peduncles

Question 74

(cerebellum white matter component and function)- Cerebellar Peduncles

Answer 74

Superior=Link the cerebellum with midbrain, diencephalon, and cerebrum Middle=Contain transverse fibers and carry communications between the cerebellum and pons Inferior= Link the cerebellum with the medulla oblongata and spinal cord

Question 75

(cerebellum white matter component and function)- Transverse Fibers

Answer 75

interconnect pontine nuclei with the cerebellar hemisphere on the opposite side

Question 76

ataxia

Answer 76

a disturbance in muscular coordination. In severe ataxia, the individual cannot sit or stand without assistance.

Question 77

Midbrain (main section)

Answer 77

the most complex and integrative portion of the brain stem

Question 78

corpora quadrigemina

Answer 78

are two pairs of sensory nuclei located in the roof of the midbrain

Question 79

superior colliculus (corpora quadrigemina-midbrain)

Answer 79

recieves visual inputs from the thalamus and controls the reflex movements of the eyes, head, and neck in response to these visual stimuli

Question 80

inferior colliculus (corpora quadrigemina-midbrain)

Answer 80

receives auditory data from nuclei in the medulla oblongata and pons and controls reflex movements of the head, neck and trunk in response to these auditory stimuli.

Question 81

Reticular activating system [RAS] (midbrain)

Answer 81

is a specialized part of the reticular formation. Stimulation of the RAS produces unconsciousness.

Question 82

red nucleus (midbrain)

Answer 82

the red nucleus receives information from the cerebrum and cerebellum and issues subconscious motor commands that affect upper limb position and background muscle tone.

Question 83

substantia nigra (midbrain)

Answer 83

contains darkly pigmented cells that adjust activity in the basal nuclei of the cerebrum.

Question 84

tectum (midbrain)

Answer 84

the tectum, or roof of the midbrain, is the region posterior to the aqueduct of the midbrain.

Question 85

(midbrain gray matter component and function)- Superior Colliculi

Answer 85

integrate visual information with other sensory inputs; intiate reflex responses to visual stimuli

Question 86

(midbrain gray matter component and function)- Inferior Colliculi

Answer 86

relay auditory information to medial geniculate nuclei; initiate reflex responses to auditory stimuli

Question 87

(midbrain gray matter component and function-walls and floor)- Red Nuclei

Answer 87

provide subconscious control of upper limb position and background muscle tone.

Question 88

(midbrain gray matter component and function-walls and floor)- Substantia Nigra

Answer 88

regulates activity in the basal nuclei

Question 89

(midbrain gray matter component and function-walls and floor)- Reticular Formation [headquarters]

Answer 89

processes incoming sensations and outgoing motor commands automatically; can initiate involuntary motor responses to stimuli; helps maintain consciousness

Question 90

(midbrain gray matter component and function)- Other Nuclei/Centers

Answer 90

are associated with cranial nerves III and IV

Question 91

(midbrain white matter component and function)- Cerebral Peduncles

Answer 91

connect primary motor cortex with motor neurons in brain and spinal cord; carry ascending sensory information to thalamus.

Question 92

Diencephalon consists of [...] (main section pg.438)

Answer 92

consists of the epithalamus, thalamus (left and right), and hypothalamus

Question 93

epithalamus (diencephalon)

Answer 93

the roof of the diencephalon superior to the third ventricle. The anterior portion of the epithalamus contains an extensive area of choroid plexus that extends through the interventricular foramina.

Question 94

anterior commissure (diencephalon-epithalamus)

Answer 94

a tract that interconnects the cerebral hemispheres and the optic chiasm

Question 95

optic chiasm (diencephalon-epithalamus)

Answer 95

where the optic nerves attach to the brain

Question 96

Thalamus (diencephalon)

Answer 96

On each side of the brain, a thalamus sits superior to the midbrain.

Question 97

interthalamic (diencephalon-epithalamus)

Answer 97

a projection of gray matter called an interthalamic adhesion extends into the ventricle from the thalamus on either side, although no fibers cross the midline

Question 98

pineal gland (diencephalon-epithalamus)

Answer 98

the pineal gland lies in the posterior, inferior portion of the epithalamus. It is an endocrine structure that secretes the hormorne melatonin.

Question 99

Melatonin (diencephalon-epithalamus-pineal gland)

Answer 99

Melatonin is important in the regulation of day-night cycles and also in the regulation of reproductive functions.

Question 100

lateral geniculate nucleus (diencephalon-thalamus)

Answer 100

the lateral geniculate nucleus of each thalamus receives visual information over the optic tract and sends signals to both the midbrain and occipital lobe of the cerebral hemisphere on that side.

Question 101

Optic tract (diencephalon-thalamus)

Answer 101

the tract over which nerve impulses from the retina are transmitted between the optic chiasm and the thalamus.

Question 102

medial geniculate nucleus (diencephalon-thalamus)

Answer 102

the medial geniculate nucleus of each thalamus relays auditory information from specialized receptors of the inner ear to the appropriate area of the cerebral cortex.

Question 103

Anterior group-thalamus

Answer 103

Part of the limbic system

Question 104

Medial group-thalamus

Answer 104

integrates sensory information for projection to the frontal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres