Final Exam Flashcards
(124 cards)
1
Q
What you know when you know a language, including grammatical vs. ungrammatical sentences, possible vs. impossible words, etc.
A
Linguistic Competence
2
Q
How do we study linguistic competence?
A
By observing a speaker’s linguistic performance
3
Q
The study of the physical properties of speech sounds and how they are made (how speech sounds are produced)
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Phonetics
4
Q
The study of the organization and distribution of speech sounds
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Phonology
5
Q
The study of the formation of words
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Morphology
6
Q
The study of the structure of phrases and sentences
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Syntax
7
Q
The study of the meaning of words and sentences
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Semantics
8
Q
Where is linguistic competence stored?
A
Lexicon & Mental Grammar
9
Q
Mental dictionary containing all of the info you know about the words of your language
A
Lexicon
10
Q
Knowledge of the rules that govern the sounds, words, sentences in your language
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Mental Grammar
11
Q
The scientific study of human language, NOT the study of how to speak properly or the study of writing
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Linguistics
12
Q
A set of rules prescribing what people should or shouldn’t say to be considered correct/proper
-Not natural, taught in school
A
Prescriptive Grammar
13
Q
A set of rules describing what people do or can say in their language (what is possible vs. impossible)
-Natural, known intuitively
A
Descriptive Grammar
14
Q
A user can both transmit & receive messages
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Interchangeability
15
Q
Some aspect of communication system is learned from other users (learn the language from his/her environment)
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Cultural Transmission
16
Q
No (necessary) connection between form of signal and its meaning
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Arbitrariness
17
Q
Signs that do have meaning
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Iconic
18
Q
Larger, complex messages are built up out of smaller, discrete parts
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Discreteness
Most animal comm. systems do not have discreteness, so they’re continuous
19
Q
Ability to talk about things not present in space or time
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Displacement
Alarm calls do not contain displacement
20
Q
Users can create infinite # of novel utterances that others can understand
A
Productivity
21
Q
How speech sounds are produced
A
Articulatory
22
Q
How speech sounds are perceived
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Auditory
23
Q
The physical properties of speech sounds
A
Acoustics
24
Q
A method of writing down speech sounds so as to capture how they are pronounced
A
Phonetic Transmission
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Speech sounds produced with a narrowing somewhere in the vocal tract
Consonants
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Both lips (ex: pat, bat, mat, with)
Bilabial
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Lower lip at upper teeth (ex: fat, vat)
Labiodental
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Tongue tip between teeth (ex: thigh, thy)
Interdental
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Tongue tip at alveolar ridge (ex: tab, dab, sip, zip, red, loose, noose)
Alveolar
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Front of tongue between alveolar ridge & hard palate (ex: church, judge, sh in leash, s in measure)
Postalveolar
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Tongue at/near hard palate (ex: yes [j] is only example)
Palatal
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Back of tongue at velum (ex: kill, gill, ng in sing)
Velar
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Produced at the larynx (ex: high, history, uh-oh)
Glottal
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Full obstruction in oral cavity (ex: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g])
Stop
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Partial obstruction w/ turbulent/noisy air (ex: [f], [v], [θ], [s], [z], [h], [ð], [ʒ])
Fricative
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Stop followed by fricative (ex: [tʃ] and [dʒ])
Affricate
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Air passes through nasal cavity w/ velum lowered/open (ex: [m], [n], [ŋ])
Nasal
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Constriction but w/ no turbulence (ex: [l], [ɹ])
Liquid
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Slightly more constriction than vowel (ex: [j], [w])
Glide
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Very rapid constriction & release (ex: [ɾ])
Flap
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Two part vowels that transition from one vowel to another in the same syllable
Dipthong
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Sounds are _______ if interchanging them can change the meaning of the word
-Ex: [p] vs. [b] in cap vs. cab
Contrastive
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A puff of air that follows the release of a consonant (characterized by superscript ʰ)
Aspiration
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Words that differ by a single sound in same position, have different meanings
-Ex: sum vs. sun, kill vs. gill, feel vs. fill vs. fell)
Minimal Pair
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An abstract mental representation of a set of sounds considered by native speakers to be 'same' sound, serve to distinguish meaning
Phoneme
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The different (phonetically similar) realizations of a phoneme ( _______ of the same phoneme are non-contrastive)
Allophones
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When sounds can occur in the same phonetic environment (may form a minimal pair)
-Ex: [s] vs. [z]
sue vs. zoo, bussing vs. buzzing, loose vs. lose
Contrastive Distribution
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When phonetically similar sounds never occur in exact same phonetic environment, but in mutually exclusive environments
Complementary Distribution (non-contrastive, allophones of the same phoneme)
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A group of sounds, with one or more features in common (to the exclusion of other sounds), that are treated as a group by the phonology
Natural Classes
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The phoneme that undergoes the rule, occurs in wider, more complex set of environments
Basic Allophone
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The phoneme that is the outcome of the rule, occurs in simplest set of environments
Restricted Allophone
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A meaningful unit of language that can stand on its own
Word
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The smallest meaningful linguistic unit
| -Can be words or parts of a word (like er in worker)
Morpheme
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Morphemes that can occur as independent words all by themselves
(ex: cat, eat, green, pumpkin, the, is)
Free Morphemes
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Morphemes that cannot stand alone; must be attached to other morphemes
(ex: s in birds, ing in tapping, ed in burped, re in reapply)
- May be roots or affixes
Bound Morphemes
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The base to which affixes attach; cannot be analyzed into smaller parts
-Can be bound or free
Root
(Free roots: cat, love)
(Bound roots: struct (construct), mit (commit))
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Morphemes that attach to a root (or stem)
| -All are bound
Affix
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Attaches to the beginning of the word
| -pre, un
Prefix
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Attaches to the end of the word
| -ness, ly, ed
Suffix
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Inserted in the middle of a root
Infix
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Attached 'around' a word (i.e., at both ends)
Circumfix
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Affixes that make or derive a new word with a new meaning (they may change lexical category)
-er, ness, un, re
Derivational Affix
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Affixes that indicate grammatical roles (they never change the lexical category/basic meaning of the word)
-s, ed, ing, en, 's, comparative er (superlative)
Inflectional Affix
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Morphemes that have some kind of semantic content of their own
- Includes derivational affixes (un-, -ness, re-, -ly)
- Nouns, verbs, adjectives
Content Morphemes
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Morphemes that do not have substantial semantic content of their own, rather they provide info about grammatical function by relating words of sentence
- Inflectional Affixes (-s, -ing, -ed)
- Prepositions (in, of), determiners (a, the), pronouns, conjunctions, auxiliaries
Function Morphemes
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Forming new words by doubling a whole morpheme or part of it
(ex: bye bye, no no, baby language)
Reduplication
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Morphological distinctions that are marked by morpheme-internal changes
(ex: man~men, goose~geese, ring~rang~rung, strife~strive)
Alternation
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When morphological inflection is indicated w/ phonetically unrelated forms
(ex: go~went, am~was, good~better, bad~worse)
Suppletion
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Combination of two (or more) independent words to form a new one
(ex: headstrong, redhot, dryclean, backup, within)
Compounding
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Combining parts of two words (beginning of one word + ending of another)
(ex: brunch, motel, smog, puggle, etc.)
Blends
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Shortened word by deleting syllables
| ex: gas(oline), psych(ology), dorm(itory), etc.
Clipping
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Use of initial letter(s) of each word in a phrase title to form a new word
(ex: PIN- personal identification number, HUB- husky union building)
Acronym
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Deriving a new word w a new lexical category from another without a change in form
(ex: verb to noun- laugh, drive, sleep, noun to verb- mail, eye, text, google)
Conversions
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Ambiguity revolving around individual words
Lexical Ambiguity
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Ambiguity revolving around phrase structure
Structural Ambiguity
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The thing/idea in the world that a word/phrase refers to
| Reference: the relationship that holds between words and things in the world
Referent
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The mental representation of a word or phrase, independent of its referent
Sense
| Sense doesn't equal mental image; a word may have different mental images for different people (e.g., mother
78
Which ones are the hyponyms and which are the hypernyms? (Poodle, maple, crimson, red, dog, tree, red, color)
Hyponyms: Poodle, maple, crimson, red
Hypernyms: Dog, tree, red, color
79
Two words with the same meaning
| ex: couch/sofa, manatee/sea cow, automobile/car
Synonymy
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Two words with the opposite meaning
Antonymy
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If X, then not Y
| ex: dead/alive, male/female, single/married, mortal/immortal
Complementary Antonymy
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Meanings are at opposite ends of a continuum
| ex: hot/cold, easy/hard, tall/short, fat/skinny
Gradable Antonymy
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Opposites in the relation that they have with two opposing points of view; the presence of X implies the presence of Y
(ex: employer/employee, teacher/student, predator/prey, buy/sell)
Converses
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Pairs of words that are pronounced the same (and may or may not be spelled the same) but have different meanings
(ex: knight/night, so/sew, plane/plain, their/they're/there)
Homophony
85
When phrases are well-formed syntactically but not semantically (they don't "make sense")
(ex: Colorless green ideas sleep furiously)
Anomaly
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The relationship between 2 sentences where the truth of one (A) guarantees the truth of another (B)
ex: A- I speak 5 languages B- I am multilingual
Entailment
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A phrase/sentences with the same meaning (and truth value) as another but with a different syntactic structure
ex: A- It's hard to find a good latte B- A good latte is hard to find
_______ display mutual entailment
Paraphrase
88
This type of linguistics seeks to understand how humans acquire, produce and comprehend language
Psycholinguistics
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This type of linguistics seeks to understand the physical bases of language storage & processing using experimental methods
Neurolinguistics
90
Children listen to the speech around them and reproduce or imitate what they hear
-BUT children say things parents never say and often can't imitate adults
Imitation Theory
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Children are praised, reinforced when language is used correctly, and corrected when they use wrong forms
-BUT parents rarely correct children's speech; when they do, they tend to correct factual rather than grammatical accuracy
Reinforcement Theory
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Children construct the rules of grammar themselves by analyzing the language around them
Active Construction of Grammar Theory
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When learned rules are applied incorrectly (via hypothesis testing) to irregular forms
- Morphological: mouses, mans, goed
- Syntactic: "I am cute, aren't I?"
Overgeneralization
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Humans are genetically predisposed to acquire and use language (i.e., children are born with innate blueprints for language and how it works (=Universal Grammar)which helps them acquire language so quickly/easily)
Innateness Theory
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When children must be exposed to language, if not then normal language acquisition cannot take place
Critical period
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Child extends range of a word's meaning beyond how it's used by adults
(ex: using dog for any furry, 4-legged animal)
Overextension
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Child applies a word's meaning to a smaller set of objects than how it is used by adults
(ex: using dog only for family pet)
Underextension
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Each hemisphere of the brain controls opposite side of the body
Contralateral Control
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The brain is asymmetrical such that each hemisphere is specialized for certain cognitive functions
Lateralization
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Hemisphere responsible for analytical processing (analyzing info), language, speech sounds, math, temporal relations, intellectual reasoning
Left Hemisphere
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Hemisphere responsible for holistic processing (recognizing patterns), non-speech sounds, music (in musically naive people), visual-spatial skills, emotional reactions
Right hemisphere
102
Any language deficit caused by damage to the brain (ex: bullet, stroke, infection, etc.)
-Almost always causes left hemisphere damage
Aphasia
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Area of LH responsible for speech production, articulatory patterns; also controls use of inflectional function morphemes
Broca's area
104
Area of LH responsible for speech comprehension and selection of words from mental lexicon
Wernicke's Area
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Aphasia associated with labored/halting speech, general lack of inflections & function morphemes (telegrammatic, agrammatic), comprehension is generally good
Broca's Aphasia
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Aphasia associated with fluent speech (can use inflections, function words) but speech is semantically incoherent, lexical errors, unnecessary words, nonsense words, circumlocutions, comprehension is poor (unaware of own impairment)
Wernicke's Aphasia
107
No two speakers of a language speak exactly the same way
Inter-speaking variation
108
No individual speaker speaks the same way all the time
Intra-speaking variation
109
A language variety, spoken by a speech community, characterized by systematic linguistic features that distinguish it from other varieties of that same language
Dialect
| everyone speaks a dialect
110
The speech variety of an individual speaker
Idiolect
111
When speakers of different language varieties are able to understand each other
Yes? Dialects. No? Languages.
Mutual Intelligibility
112
When each dialect is intelligible with its contiguous neighbor but unintelligible with the dialects at the opposite end of the continuum
Dialect Continuum
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Dialect typically used by political leaders, media, upper class (prestige)
Standard Dialect
114
Any dialect not perceived as standard (but that doesn't mean it's inferior or incorrect)
Non-standard Dialect
115
Prestige that is attached to a dialect (particularly the standard) by the community at large; defines how people should speak to gain status in that community
Overt Prestige
116
Prestige that exists among nonstandard speakers; defines how people should speak to be considered members of that particular group
Covert Prestige
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Producing nonstandard forms by false analogy, often to achieve overt prestige of standard dialect
Hypercorrection
118
Languages in contact with equal prestige
Adstratum
119
Language of dominant group
Superstratum
120
Language of subordinate group
Substratum
121
Developed from speakers in contact with no common language, but who have a need to communicate (for trade, business, etc.)
-Not the primary language of their speakers (learned/used as 2nd language)
Pidgins
122
Often arise from pidgins acquired as first/native language
| -Unlike pidgins, serve as primary means of communication
Creoles
123
A language change at a particular point in time
Synchronic Change
124
A language change over time (=historical linguistics)
Diachronic Change
