Final Exam Flashcards
(119 cards)
1
Q
What is Motivation?
A
The level, direction and persistence of effort expended at work.
- Ability x Motivation x Situation = Performance
- Managers can influence all of these factors
- A highly motivated workforce is indispensable to the achievement of sustained high-performance results
2
Q
The motivation process
A
Involves:
- Needs
- Cognitive activities
- Behaviour
- Rewards/ reinforcement
3
Q
(Maslow’s) hierarchy-of-needs theory
A
-Needs are physiological or psychological deficiencies a person feels the compulsion to satisfy ( we want what we don't have) - Motivation largely an automatic process Five basic need sets: 1. Physiological needs 2. Security needs 3. Love or social needs 4. Esteem needs 5. Self-actualisation needs
4
Q
Two underlying principles of motivation
A
Deficit principle:
- a satisfied need is not a motivator of behaviour
- people act to satisfy ‘deprived’ needs, those for which a satisfaction ‘deficit’ exists
Progression principle:
- the five needs exist in a hierarchy of ‘prepotency’
- a need at any level only becomes activated once the next-lower-level need has been satisfied
5
Q
What are the managerial implications?
A
-Employees can always be expected to want more.
-Once a lower level needs are satisfied, other things become important.
Employees on different levels should be treated differently
But….
- Research has found little consistent support e.g. more a need is met, more important it can become
6
Q
Alderfer’s ERG theory
A
Three basic need sets:
1. Growth (esteem & self-actualisation)
2. Relatedness (social & esteem needs)
3. Existence (physiological & security needs)
Not hierarchical- all needs can be influenced at the same time
- people can move between the need sets
- frustration-regression principle = already satisfied need can become reactivated if higher level needs cannot be satisfied
7
Q
What are the managerial implications?
A
- Different things motivate different people (consistent woth Maslow’s theory)
- Employees may try to fulfil many needs at the same time
- Growth needs are important for all - if these are not met, employees may lose interest
8
Q
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
A
Deals with both work motivation and job satisfaction
- Hygiene/maintenance needs
- external, lower needs
- produce job dissatisfaction when unmet (and the lack of job dissatisfaction when met) - Motivator/satisfier needs
- internal, higher needs
- produce job satisfaction when met (and lack of satisfaction when unmet)
9
Q
What are the managerial implications?
A
- pay attention to job context (associated with hygiene factors) to take care of job dissatisfaction
- pay attention to job content (associated with satisfier factors) to increase satisfaction and motivation.
e. g. low pay can make someone dissatisfied but paying more will not necessarily satisfy or motivate them
10
Q
Motivation theories
A
- expectancy
- equity
- goal setting
- reinforcement theory
11
Q
Vroom’s expectancy theory
A
Motivation depends on individuals’ expectations about their ability to perform tasks and receive desired rewards
- Expectancy = the belief that efforts are linked to performance
- Instrumentality = the belief that performance us related to rewards
- Valence = the importance placed on the expected reward
12
Q
Equity theory
A
- Based on the principle of social comparison
- People are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they expect for performance
- if receive more/less, we are motivated to act to bring equity
13
Q
Possible responses to perceived inequity
A
- change inputs = less effort
- change rewards = ask for better treatment
- change the way you think about inputs/rewards
- change the comparison
- quit
14
Q
implications for management
A
- two-way communication to understand perceptions of (in)equity
- ensure employees know the ‘rules’ of outcome allocation relative to inputs
- transparent and open communication
15
Q
Goal-setting theory
A
- SMART rules for goals ( specific, measurable, actionable, reasonable and timetabled)
- The notion of goal as a motivational factor
- Goal = object or aim of an action
- Specific
- Challenging
- Build acceptance and commitment
- Goal priorities
- Feedback
- Reward accomplishment
16
Q
Implications for management
A
- Management by objectives
- Make sure goals are properly set i.e. SMART goals
- Manage goals e.g. by giving feeback
17
Q
Reinforcement theory
A
- Environmental consequences are important
- Law of effect: if behaviour is rewarded, it is likely to occur again
“learning by reinforcement” - organisational behaviour modification - the application of operant conditioning techniques to influence human behaviour at work
18
Q
What are the managerial implications?
A
- tell employees what behaviours will be rewarded
- what is considered ‘rewarding’ differs between people - managers must check if behaviour changes
- careful with negative reinforcement and punishment - harmful consequences in the long term = if used should be administered quickly and consistently
19
Q
What is leadership?
A
Leading - the process of inspiring others to work hard to accomplish important tasks
- One of the four functions of management
20
Q
Power
A
Ability to get someone else to do something you want or make things happen the way you want.
Position power - based on things managers can offer others
1. Reward
2. Coercion
3. Legitimacy
Personal power - based on the ways managers are viewed by others
1. Expert
2. Referent
21
Q
Turning power into influence
A
Keys to developing personal power: - expertise - effort and hard work - likeable personal qualities - behaviour that supports values Keys to developing position power: - Centrality - Support - Visibility
22
Q
Which leadership style works best?
A
Two dimensions of leadership style:
- Concern for task/results
- Concern for people
23
Q
Contingency theories (Situational leadership model)
A
Hersey-Blanchard
- Leaders adjust their styles depending on the readiness of their followers to perform in a given situation
Readiness = how able, willing and confident followers are in performing tasks
24
Q
What is human resource management?
A
ensuring the organisation has the right number of people, with the required knowledge, skills, abilities and competencies, at an affordable cost, who are motivated and committed to achieving the strategic aims of the organisation
25
Roles of human resource management
- Developing effective workforce
- Maintaining effective workforce
- Attracting effective workforce
26
How do organisations develop a quality workforce?
1. Socialisation
- Process of influencing the expectations, behaviour and attitudes of a new employee in a way considered desirable by the organisation
- To achieve the best possible fit between individual, the job and the organisation
2. Orientation
- Set of activities designed to familiarise new employees with their jobs, coworkers and key aspects of the organisation
e. g. explaining job expectations, communicating policies and procedures
27
Why have a PM system?
Part of HRM responsibility is the design and implementation of a successful performance management systems where:
- performance standards and objectives are set
- performance is regularly assessed
- actions are taken to improve performance potential in the future
28
Performance appraisal
- Formally assessing someone's work accomplishments and providing feedback
- The two broad purposes of performance appraisal =
1. Evaluation - let people know where they stand relative to objectives and standards
2. Development - assist in training and continue personal development of people
29
Information about employee performance can by found using:
1. Objective Production Data
2. Personal Data
3. Judgemental Data ( ratings)
30
1. Objective Production Data
Quantitative data used to evaluate performance
e.g. sales volume, number of objects produced
but...
-variability is often outside employee's control
e.g. car part not in stock
performance = motivation x ability x situation
- they rarely tell the whole story
31
2. Personal Data
The use of employment data (often retained by the HR department) used to evaluate performance
e. g. (unexcused) absenteeism, accidents
but. ..
- not relevant in all jobs
e. g. construction worker vs. lecturer
- difficult to determine whether absenteeism is unexcused vs. excused
32
3. Judgemental data
Subjective evaluations of employee's behaviour
using for example: graphic rating scales
- checklists of traits or characteristics thought to be related to high performance in a given job
- relatively quick and easy to use
- ratings most often completed by supervisors
33
How can we improve the simple graphic rating scale?
Behaviourally anchored rating scale (BARS)
- Explicit descriptions of actual behaviours that exemplify various levels of performance achievement in a job
- More reliable and valid than simple graphic rating scales
- Helpful in training people to master important job skills
34
Critical-incident techique
- Keeping a running log or inventory of effective and ineffective behaviours
- Documents success of failure patterns
- Can be used in developing the 'anchors' for BARS
- and for developing interview questions
STAR techniques: Explain the Situation- Task- Action- Result
35
Multi-person comparisons
- Formally compare one person's performance with that of one or more others
Types of multi-person comparisons:
- Rank ordering = best to worst
- Paired comparisons = x compared with y, x compared with z etc.
- Forced distributions = frequency distributions
36
Alternatives to supervisory appraisal
- Peer appraisal = rating by people who work regularly and directly with a jobholder
- Upward appraisal = rating by subordinates reporting to the jobholder
- 360 degrees feedback = ratings by superiors, subordinates, peers and even internal and external customers
37
HR planning
Job analysis:
- A formal procedure by which the content of a job is defined in terms of tasks performed and human qualifications needed to perform the job
38
Recruiting employees
The process of attracting qualified people to apply for a job
- recruitment can be done internally (within the organisation) and/or externally (outside).
Recruitment should be a mutual process between the employers and the applicant
Realistic job preview:
- not just 'selling' the best aspects of a job but....
- providing job candidates with all pertinent information about a job and the organisation
39
Selection
Choosing from a pool of the best-qualified job applicants
1. Formal application
2. Interview or site visit
3. Testing
4. Reference checks
5. Physical exam
6. Analysis and decision
40
Application forms
- applicant's personal history and qualifications
- resume/CV often also requested
- online recruitment very common now
- can include 'screening questions'
41
Interview
- most commonly used selection method
- interview serves many functions e.g. assessing the applicant's fit with the organisations
- whanau interviewing (more than one person)
- structured or unstructured
- unstructured interviews not very valid. Cannot make comparisons between candidates
- structured interviews often include behavioural questions
42
Letter of Recommendations
- inquiries to previous employers regarding the qualifications, experience and past work records of job applicant
- commonly used but not always useful
- the problem of restricted range
- can be helpful revealing important information not discovered elsewhere in the selection process
43
The planning process
1. Define your objectives
2. Determine where you stand in relation to objectives
3. Develop premises regarding future scenarios
4. Analyse and choose among action alternatives
5. Implement the plan and evaluate results
44
SMART Objectives
```
S = specific
M = measurable
A = actionable
R = reasonable
T = timetabled
```
45
Scenario planning
- conditioning the organisation to think about the environment
- developing plausible scenarios for the future
- dealing with uncertainties
- better prepared for 'shocks' to the industry
- creating a competitive advantage or joint ventures with competitors
46
Overview of contingencies and trends
- as environment change, structures must change
- change is inevitable
- customers are driving organisations
- organisations are empowering employees
- innovation is key
- technology impacts structure
47
Contingencies: Strategy
```
Stability oriented strategies:
- future clear
- predictability
- bureaucratic structure
- mechanistic design
Growth oriented strategies
- frequent change, fluid situations
- innovation and flexibility
- modification of plans
- adaptive structure
- organic design
```
48
Contingencies: Size and life cycle
- Size - employee numbers
- large are often more bureaucratic and struggle to innovate
- life cycle:
1. birth stage
2. youth stage
3. midlife stage
4. maturity stage
- simultaneous system
49
Contingencies: Human resources
- people are also a contingency
- people -structure relationship
- supporting structures they need to achieve
- high performance
- satisfaction at work
- generations of people want and need different things
- knowledge management
50
Organising trends: creating shorter chains of command
Chain of command:
- links persons with successively higher levels of authority
- organisations are being 'streamlined' - flatter more horizontal structures being viewed as a competitive advantage
51
Organising trends: creating less unity of command
- less unity of command, in which each person reports to only one supervisor
- two boss system challenges principle
- facilitates rapid responses to new situations
- communication is key
52
Organising trends: delegating and empowering more
- Delegation is the process of distributing and entrusting work to other persons
- ground rules for effective delegation include:
- carefully choose the delegate
- clearly define the responsibility
- agree on objectives and standards
- agree on performance timetable
- give authority and show trust
- provide performance support and feedback
- help when things go wrong
53
Organising trends: decentralising with some centralisation
Centralisation:
- the concentration of authority for most decisions at the top level of organisation
Decentralisation:
- the dispersion of authority to make decisions throughout all levels of the organisation
When empowerment and related forces are contributing to more decentralisation, advances in IT allow centralised control to be retained
54
Sustainability
Sustainability results from activities that:
- extend the productive life of organisations and maintain high levels of corporate performance
- maintain decent levels of welfare for present and future generations
- enhance society's ability to maintain itself to solve its major problems
- enhance the planet's ability to maintain and renew the biosphere and protect all living species
55
Voluntary reporting
- Reporting that firms voluntarily adopt
- Reporting goes hand in hand with management's interest in acting responsibly and sustainably
- Several types of voluntary reporting:
- value added statements
- social accounting
- environmental reporting
- human resource accounting
- triple bottom line reporting
- sustainability reporting
- integrated reporting
56
Stakeholder management
- broaden a manager's vision beyond profit maximisation
- who deserves manager's attention?
- works out who has a 'stake' in a business
- actual or potential stakeholders: groups, organisations, institutions, societies, environment
- groups to whom the corporation is responsible
- anyone who can affect or be affected by the achievement of an organisation's objectives
57
Stakeholders and Expectations
Shareholders/stockholders:
- expect the company to make money, earn profits, and play dividends
Employees:
- expect decent treatment
- expect employment laws to be upheld
Customers:
- expect responsible businesses which engage in responsible advertising
- expect products to be safe
- expect not to be cheated
Community:
- looks for sponsorship and philanthropy
- companies rely on them for needed infrastructure
Society:
- expects the business community to understand the impact they have one society and to act accordingly
58
Ed Freeman Perspective
```
Start with company/enterprise 'purpose'
Three enterprise stakeholder strategies:
1. Narrow stakeholder strategy approach:
- 2 or 3 stakeholders
- employee customer shareholder strategy
- don't make mistake with other stakeholders
2. Basic 5 stakeholder strategy:
- customer, suppliers, employees, shareholders, communities
- harmonise interests
3. Noble cause stakeholder strategy
- making a real difference in the world
- managing for people
```
59
three ethical theories
1. consequentialist
2. deontological
3. virtue moral reasoning
60
Ethics
- Is about judging decisions or actions by their likely consequences or outcomes
- Is a matter of respecting human dignity. There are certain categorical duties and rights
- Developing positive individual characters (virtues) in people
61
Consequentislist Moral Reasoning
- A results-oriented point of view
- Treats people as means to particular ends
- Focuses on things that can be measured
- Overly simplistic
Utilitarianism:
- Maximizing the utility (happiness/pleasure) if the largest number of people
Egoism:
- Maximizing the long term happiness of the individual
62
Deontological Moral Reasoning
- Human rights are inviolable
- There are universal duties to human beings; some things are wrong
- People should be treated with respect regardless of who they are or what they are doing or where they live
- Respecting people as ends in themselves
63
Virtue Moral Reasoning
- About living a good life with which you are satisfied
- Developing virtues or positive character traits
- A virtue is a disposition that you acquire:
- Courage is the virtue of dealing with danger or difficulty
- Generosity is the virtue of helping those who are in need
- Justice is the virtue of having the right attitude towards others
You learn critically from experience to deal intelligently with certain situations
You learn to act for reasons of a certain sort and your feelings become educated and formed so that you go along with those reasons
64
Law
Law is a set of rules made by the state and enforceable by prosecution or litigation
65
Law is necessary to:
- provide a code by which people can regulate their conduct
- enforce compliance with those rules which prohibit antisocial conduct
- provide a process by which disputes between members of society can be resolved
66
Law's two functions
1. to restrict the freedom of action of the individual
| 2. to protect the individual from the arbitrary acts of those in authority
67
Processes by which laws are created/modified
Legislation:
-Acts of NZ Parliament and delegate legislation
Precedent (case law)
- decisions of judges
- a judge must: determine the facts; identify the relevant legal principles and apply those principles to arrive at a decision
- it is the judge's statement of the law that itself becomes part if the law
68
Sources of employment law
- statutes (legislation)
- case law (precedent)
- employment agreements
- other sources e.g. workplace policies
69
ERA, 2000
- replaced the employment contracts act (ECA), 1991
| - introduced to provide a better framework for the conduct of employment relations
70
ERA, 2000 Objective
to build productive employment relationships through the promotion of good faith in all aspects of the employment environment
71
Some important aspects of ERA, 2000
- focus form a contract to a relationship
- good faith bargaining
- role of unions reaffirmed
- mediation as a key to resolving conflict
72
Recent changes: employment standars bill
changes took effect 1 april 2016
- extended paid parental leave to more workers and increase flexibility of the scheme
- strengthen enforcement of employment standards
- address issues such as "zero-hour contracts" and other unfair employment practices
73
Health and Safety at Work Act
Biggest health and safety reforms in 20 years
Aim: To reduce the number of serious work related injuries and deaths in NZ
.... by changing the way we think about h&s at work
-ensures everyone has a role
-focuses on managing risks
-control the risk
- engage with workers and enable them to participate
- allows flexibility in managing your health and safety risks
74
Discrimination
Discrimination occurs where, under the same circumstances, someone else is treated less favourably than someone else.
- Direct discrimination
Discrimination also exists where a condition is imposed which although the same for everyone, unfairly disadvantages some people
- Indirect discrimination: behaviour, practices, requirements or conditions that might not appear to breach the legislation
75
Discrimination in employment
Job applicant/ existing employee is qualified for particular work, but an employer decides on ant of the prohibited grounds of discrimination to:
- refuse to employ the applicant on that work
- offer to give the applicant or employee less favourable terms of employment
- terminate the employment
- retire the employee
76
Exceptions to employment
Genuine occupational qualifications
- not specifically defined under the HRA
- 'qualification' any genuine requirement a job may have
- if a reasonable adjustment could be made to the employers activities to make the different treatment unnecessary then an employer cannot use these exceptions
77
Why change?
companies that are successful will have cultures that thrive on change, even though change makes most people uncomfortable
78
What is change?
An alternation of an organisation's environment, structures, culture, technology or people
- a constant force
- an organisational reality
- an opportunity or a threat
79
External forces for change
e. g.
- information/knowledge
- new technology
- labour markets and populations demographics
80
Change leadership
```
Change agent:
- a person or group who takes leadership responsibility for changing the existing pattern of behaviour of another person or social system
Change leadership:
-forward looking
-proactive
-embraces new ideas
```
81
Types of changes
1. Transformational change
- makes radical changes in organisational directions
2. Incremental change
- continuing adjustments to existing ways and practices
3. Bottom up change
- is initiated by empowered persons working at all organisational levels
4. Top down change
82
Top-down change
- strategic and comprehensive change that is initiated with the goals of comprehensive impact on the organisation and its performance capabilities
- driven by the organisation's top leadership
- success depends on the support of the middle-level and lower-level workers
83
Phases of planned change
1. unfreezing
- the phase in which a situation is prepared for change and felt need for change are developed
2. changing
- the phase in which something new takes place and change is actually implemented
3. refreezing
- the phase of stabilising the change and creating the conditions for its long term continuity
84
Change strategy
1. force-coercion
- using position power to create change by decree and formal authority
2. rational persuasion
- creating change through rational persuasion and empirical argument
3. Shared power
- developing support for change through personal values and commitments
85
What is organisation development?
organisation development is a comprehensive approach to planned organisational change that involves the application of behavioural science in a systematic and long-range effort to improve organisation effectiveness
86
The goals of organisation development
1. outcome goals
- task accomplishment
2. process goals
- the way people work together
87
Where can organisation development help?
Organisational decline and revitalisation
- e.g. decline in trust, high turnover
Conflict management
- conflict can occur at any time and place within a healthy organisation
Mergers and acquisitions
- misfit in corporate cultures and administrative styles in two organisations
88
The organisation development process
1. establish a working relationship
2. diagnosis
3. intervention
4. evaluation
5. achieve a terminal relationship
89
Organisation activities
1. individual interventions
- e.g. management training, career planning; job design
2. team interventions
- e.g. team building activities
3. organisation-wide interventions
- e.g. survey-feedback activities - questionnaires
4. large group interventions
- bringing together members from all parts of the organisation to discuss issues and plan for change
90
Organisational learning
- peter senge's 'the fifth discipline'
- managers to stimulate and lead change in ways that create true learning
- organisations can 'learn how to learn' and deal with issues using collective wisdom
91
Learning organisation is characterised by:
- a provision of learning spaces
- a willingness to experiment
- no blame; mistakes are seen as an opportunity to learn
- a celebration of diversity
- a truly shared vision
- rewarding learning
92
Why people resist change?
- belief that change is not good for the organisation
- fear of the unknown
- fear of losing something of value
93
Understanding resistance to change
Organisational silence
- a form of resistance which occurs when employees:
-fear speaking up about workplace problems
- believe managers knows best about most issues
- believe that disagreement and dissent should be avoided
Mangers often interpret organisational silence as agreement
94
How to deal with resistance to change?
- education and communication
- participation and involvement
- facilitation and support
- facilitation and agreement
Not strategies:
- manipulation and cooptation
- explicit and implicit coercion
95
Marketing
Activities undertaken to create and exchange products and values with others
96
The marketing mix
the different elements that marketers need to consider
1. Product
2. Promotion
3. Place
4. Price
97
Product
- anything that can be offered to market for attention, acquisition, use or consumption that might satisfy a want or need
- physical objects, services, persons, places, organisations and ideas
98
Promotion
```
- marketing activities that make potential customers, partners and society aware of and attracted to the business offering
Product can be:
- established
- modified
- new
- information or education
```
99
Basic promotion methods
1. personal selling
2. mass selling
- advertising
- publicity
3. sales promotion
100
Place
Distribution:
- means of making the offering available to the customer at the right time and place
Logistics:
- ensuring that products are in the right place at the right time in the right quantity
101
Price
What is charged for something
- usually expressed in $$
- closely linked with the concept of value
102
Consumer behaviour
the analysis of the behaviour of individuals and households who buy goods and services for personal consumption
103
A model of consumer behaviour
consumer research to understand:
- what consumers buy
- who buys, how they buy
- when they buy
- where they buy
- why they buy
104
Characteristics of influencing consumer behaviour
Consumers purchases are strongly influenced by two groups of factors:
1. on one hand there are internal characteristics that determine our behaviour:
e. g. psychological characteristics/factors
2. external influences that represent the environment in which the individual behaviour takes place:
e. g. cultural and social factors
105
Psychological factors - perception
the process by which people select, organise and interpret information to form a meaningful picture of the world
- two people with similar motivation and in the same situation might act quite differently because they perceive situation differently
106
Perceptual processes
Selective exposure
- most available information will not be attended to
Selective distortion
- fitting incoming information into existing mindset
Selective retention
- information that supports attitudes and beliefs better retained
107
Psychological factors - beliefs and attitudes
- a belief is a descriptive thought or conviction that a person holds about something
- an attitude is a person's relatively consistent evaluations, feelings and tendencies towards an object or an idea
108
Cultural factors
Cultural factors exert the broadest and deepest influence on consumer behaviour. marketers need to understand the role played by the:
- Culture - major influence on our wants and behaviour
- Subculture e.g. chinese, italian, finnish communities
109
Reference groups
a person's behaviour is influenced by many small groups, some directly and some indirectly
Reference groups:
- groups that have direct or indirect influence on the person's behaviour or attitudes
Membership groups:
- groups that have direct influence on a person's behaviour and to which a person belongs
Aspirational groups:
- groups which an individual wishes to belong to
110
Persuasion
Process by which attitudes are formed, reinforced or changed by communication
Persuasive communication:
- message intended to change an attitude and related behaviours of an audience
111
The yale model
Key to understanding why people attend to, understand, remember and accept a persuasive message to study:
1. Source
- characteristics of the communicator
2. Message
- contents of the actual communication
- medium of the message
3. Audience
- characteristics of the receiver/intended target
112
Source
Who is saying something makes a difference
Greater persuasive influence if the source is:
Credible
-trustworthy, perceived as an expert
-speaks confidently and fast
Likeable, popular and attractive
Similar to us
113
Message
It also matters what the person is says
Greater persuasive influence if:
- if communication is not perceived as a deliberate persuasion attempt
Both perspectives are covered
- especially if the audience is against the argument
- if the audience is on your side, only present one side
Repetition and more exposure:
- greater persuasive influence if message is repeated
- if message is familiar, it seems truer and easier to recall
Emotional tone:
- often, the more frightened people are, the more they respond. however there is a limit
Low fear = irrelevance, low motivation
High fear = high anxiety and defensive avoidance
Moderate = generally effective
114
Message and good feelings
Message more persuasive through association with good feelings
- good feelings enhance positive thinking
- people in good mood rely more on heuristic cues
Medium:
e.g. face to face, tv, audio
-largely depends on complexity of message
- visual if easy to comprehend
- written if complex
115
Audience
It matters who you are communicating to.
Older people more difficult to persuade?
- perhaps so
- attitudes of older people adopted when they where young persist largely unchanged = generation gap
- More intelligent people are more difficult to persuade
116
Cultural factors
e. g. ting-toomey's (2005) 'face negotiation theory'
- collectivist vs. individualistic cultures
- small vs. large power distances between parties
e. g. self-face vs other face/mutual-face
117
Who, what and to whom?
No one communication variable can be treated in total isolation; the persuasion process is an interaction of these three categories
118
Compliance
Superficial, public and transitory change in behaviour and expressed attitudes in response to requests, coercion or group pressure
General principles:
Ingratiation
- getting people to like you/increasing your attractiveness to others = greater compliance to your requests
Reciprocity principle
- we should treat people the way they treat us
119
Increasing compliance
Multiple requests
- manipulative tactic whereby a first request is a set-up for a later request they wish you to comply with
1. Foot-in-the door tactic
Get someone to agree to a small request, more likely to comply a large request
2. Door-in-the-face tactic
Asking a big request first (undoubtedly denied) so that later smaller requests seem so much more acceptable
3. Low-ball tactic
People who agree to an initial request can feel committed even after finding that there is a hidden cost
