Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Empirical method
A
a set of rules and techniques for observation
2
Q
Scientific method
A
a procedure for finding truth by using empirical evidence.
3
Q
Theory
A
a hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon
4
Q
Hypothesis
A
a falsifiable prediction made by a theory.
5
Q
Instrument
A
anything that can detect the condition to which an operational definition refers
6
Q
Power
A
an instrument’s ability to detect differences or changes in the property.
7
Q
Demand Characteristics
A
those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects
8
Q
Naturalistic observation
A
a technique for gathering scientific information by unobtrusively observing people in their natural environments
9
Q
Observer bias
A
expectations can influence observations and expectations can influence reality. Observers’ expectations, then, can have a powerful influence on both the observations they make and on the behavior of those whom they observe.
10
Q
Double-blind observation
A
an observation whose true purpose is hidden from both the observer and the person being observed
11
Q
Self-selection
A
a problem that occurs when anything about a person determines whether he or she will be included in the experimental or control group.
12
Q
Population
A
complete collection of people, such as the population of human beings (about 7 billion), the population of Californians (about 38 million), or the population of people with Down syndrome (about 1 million).
13
Q
Sample
A
a partial collection of people drawn from a population
14
Q
Random sampling
A
a technique for choosing participants that ensures that every member of a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample
15
Q
Natural correlation
A
the correlations observed in the world around us
16
Q
Third-variable correlation
A
two variables are correlated only because each is causally related to a third variable
17
Q
Correlation versus Causation
A
Correlation does not necessarily mean causation
18
Q
Experiment
A
a technique for establishing the causal relationship between variables
19
Q
Manipulation
A
involves changing a variable in order to determine its causal power
20
Q
Variable
A
properties whose values can vary across individuals or over time
21
Q
Dependent
A
variable that is measured
22
Q
Independent
A
what the experimenter will change
23
Q
Experimental group
A
the group of people who experience a stimulus
24
Q
Control group
A
the group of people who do not experience that stimulus
25
Informed consent
a written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail
26
Debriefing
a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study
27
Validity
the goodness with which a concrete event defines a property
28
Internal validity
an attribute of an experiment that allows it to establish causal relationships
29
External validity
an attribute of an experiment in which variables have been defined in a normal, typical, or realistic way
30
Reliability
the tendency for an instrument to produce the same measurement whenever it is used to measure the same thing
31
Sensory memory
a type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less
32
Iconic memory
a fast-decaying store of visual information
33
Echoic memory
a fast-decaying store of auditory information
34
Short-term memory
holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute
35
Long-term memory
a type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years
36
Working memory
active maintenance of information in short-term storage
37
Procedural memory
the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or “knowing how” to do things
38
Prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
39
Source memory
recall of when, where, and how information was acquired
40
Flashbulb memories
detailed recollections of when and where we heard about shocking events
41
Semantic encoding
the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory
42
Visual imagery encoding
the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures
43
Storage
is the process of maintaining information in memory over time
44
Rehearsal
the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it
45
Retrieval
bringing memories to mind
46
Consolidation
the process by which memories become stable in the brain
47
Reconsolidation
The process that causes memories to become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to become consolidated again
48
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
a process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier
49
State-dependent retrieval
the tendency for information to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
50
Transfer-appropriate processing
the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match
51
Priming
an enhanced ability to think of a stimulus, such as a word or object, as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus
52
Semantic memory
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world
53
Episodic memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
54
Explicit memory
when people consciously or intentionally retrieve past experiences
55
Implicit memory
past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even without an effort to remember those experiences or an awareness of the recollection
56
Chunking
involves combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory
57
Semantic encoding
the process of relating new information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory
58
Visual imagery
the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pictures
59
Organizational
the process of categorizing information according to the relationships among a series of items
60
Retroactive interference
situations in which later learning impairs memory for information acquired earlier
61
Proactive interference
situations in which earlier learning impairs memory for information acquired later
62
Retrograde amnesia
the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or surgery.
63
Absentmindedness
a lapse in attention that results in memory failure
64
Blocking
a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it
65
Memory misattribution
assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source
66
Bias
the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences
67
Persistence
the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget
68
Suggestibility
tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections
69
Learning
the acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses from experience that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner
70
Shaping
learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior
71
Extinction
the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US
72
Generalization
The CR is observed even though the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition
73
Discrimination (Learning)
the capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli
74
Habituation
a general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding
75
Sensitization
A simple form of learning that occurs when presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus
76
Acquisition
the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together
77
Spontaneous recovery
the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period
78
Biological preparedness
a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others
79
Law of effect
Behaviors that are followed by a “satisfying state of affairs” tend to be repeated and those that produce an “unpleasant state of affairs” are less likely to be repeated
80
Cognitive map
a mental representation of the physical features of the environment
81
Classical conditioning
when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response
82
Operant conditioning
a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism’s behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future
83
Unconditioned stimulus (US
something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction in an organism
84
Unconditioned response (UR
a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus
85
Conditioned stimulus (CS
a previously neutral stimulus that produces a reliable response in an organism after being paired with a US
86
Conditioned response (CR)
a reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus
87
Second-order conditioning
conditioning in which a CS is paired with a stimulus that became associated with the US in an earlier procedure
88
Latent learning
something is learned, but it is not manifested as a behavioral change until sometime in the future
89
Observational learning
learning takes place by watching the actions of others
90
Implicit learning
learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the products of information acquisition
91
Reinforcer
any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
92
Positive reinforcement
where a rewarding stimulus is presented
93
Negative reinforcement
where an unpleasant stimulus is removed
94
Intermittent reinforcement
when only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement
95
Primary reinforcers
Food, comfort, shelter, or warmth are examples of primary reinforcers because they help satisfy biological needs
96
Secondary reinforcers
derive their effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning
97
Punisher
any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
98
Positive punishment
where an unpleasant stimulus is administered
99
Negative punishment
where a rewarding stimulus is removed
100
Fixed-interval schedule (FI
reinforcers are presented at fixed-time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made
101
Variable-interval schedule (VI
a behavior is reinforced based on an average time that has expired since the last reinforcement
102
Fixed-ration schedule (FR
reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made
103
Variable-ratio schedule (VR
the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses
104
Cell body (or soma
the largest component of the neuron that coordinates the information-processing tasks and keeps the cell alive
105
Dendrite
receive information from other neurons and relay it to the cell body
106
Axon
carries information to other neurons, muscles, or glands
107
Synapse
the junction or region between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another
108
Terminal buttons
knob-like structures that branch out from an axon
109
Myelin sheath
an insulating layer of fatty material
110
Glial cells
support cells found in the nervous system
111
Sensory neurons
receive information from the external world and convey this information to the brain via the spinal cord
112
Motor neurons
carry signals from the spinal cord to the muscles to produce movement
113
Inter neurons
connect sensory neurons, motor neurons, or other interneurons
114
Resting potential
the difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron’s cell membrane
115
Action potential
an electric signal that is conducted along the length of a neuron’s axon to a synapse
116
Neurotransmitters
chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrites
117
Receptors
parts of the cell membrane that receive neurotransmitters and either initiate or prevent a new electric signal
118
Agonists
drugs that increase the action of a neurotransmitter
119
Antagonists
drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter
120
Mirror neurons
active when an animal performs a behavior, such as reaching for or manipulating an object, and they are also activated when another animal observes the first animal as it performs the same behavior
121
Neurons
cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks
122
EEG
a device used to record electrical activity in the brain
123
PET
A harmless radioactive substance is injected into a person’s bloodstream. Then the brain is scanned by radiation detectors as the person performs perceptual or cognitive tasks, such as reading or speaking.
124
fMRI
detects the difference between oxygenated hemoglobin and deoxygenated hemoglobin when exposed to magnetic pulses
125
TMS
delivers a magnetic pulse that passes through the skull and deactivates neurons in the cerebral cortex for a short period, mimicking brain damage
126
CNS
composed of the brain and spinal cord
127
PNS
connects the central nervous system to the body’s organs and muscles
128
Somatic
a set of nerves that conveys information between voluntary muscles and the central nervous system
129
Autonomic
a set of nerves that carries involuntary and automatic commands that control blood vessels, body organs, and glands
130
Parasympathetic
helps the body return to a normal resting state
131
Sympathetic
a set of nerves that prepares the body for action in challenging or threatening situations
132
Frontal
which sits behind the forehead, has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgment
133
Temporal
is responsible for hearing and language (above the ear)
134
Occipital
processes visual information (located at the back of the brain)
135
Parietal
carries out functions that include processing information about touch. (located in front, at the top, of the occipital lobe [on top of temporal lobe])
136
Thalamus
relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex
137
Hypothalamus
regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
138
pituitary gland
the “master gland” of the body’s hormone-producing system, which releases hormones that direct the functions of many other glands in the body
139
hippocampus
critical for creating new memories and integrating them into a network of knowledge so that they can be stored indefinitely in other parts of the cerebral cortex
140
amygdala
located at the tip of each horn of the hippocampus, plays a central role in many emotional processes, particularly the formation of emotional memories
141
Spinal reflexes
simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions
142
Hindbrain
an area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord
143
Medulla
an extension of the spinal cord into the skull that coordinates heart rate, circulation, and respiration
144
Cerebellum
a large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills
145
Pons
a structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
146
Basal ganglia
a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements.
147
Cerebral cortex
the outermost layer of the brain, visible to the naked eye, and divided into two hemispheres
148
Corpus callosum
connects large areas of the cerebral cortex on each side of the brain and supports communication of information across the hemispheres
149
Association areas
composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex
150
Brain/neural plasticity
They can adapt to changes in sensory inputs, a quality researchers call plasticity (i.e., the ability to be molded)
Ex. if you lose your middle finger in an accident, the part of the somatosensory area that represents that finger is initially unresponsive. After all, there’s no longer any sensory input coming from that location to that part of the brain. You might expect the left middle-finger neurons of the somatosensory cortex to wither away. However, over time, that area in the somatosensory cortex becomes responsive to stimulation of the fingers adjacent to the missing finger.
151
Gene
the major unit of hereditary transmission
152
Chromosomes
strands of DNA wound around each other in a double-helix configuration. (Humans have 23 pairs, 46 total)
153
Epigenetics
environmental influences that determine whether or not genes are expressed, or the degree to which they are expressed, without altering the basic DNA sequences that constitute the genes themselves
154
Grammar
a set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages
155
Phoneme
The smallest units of sound that are recognizable as speech rather than as random noise
156
Phonological rules
indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds. For example, the initial sound ts is acceptable in German but not in English.
157
Morphemes
the smallest meaningful units of language (see FIGURE 9.1). For example, your brain recognizes the p sound you make at the beginning of pat as a speech sound, but it carries no particular meaning. The morpheme pat, on the other hand, is recognized as an element of speech that carries meaning.
158
Morphological rules
are a set of rules that indicate how morphemes can be combined to form words
159
Syntactical rules
a set of rules that indicate how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences
160
Deep structure
the meaning of a sentence
161
Surface structure
how a sentence is worded
162
Fast mapping
The fact that children can map a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure
163
Telegraphic speech
devoid of function morphemes and consist mostly of content words.
164
Genetic dysphasia
a syndrome characterized by an inability to learn the grammatical structure of language despite having otherwise normal intelligence
165
Aphasia
difficulty in producing or comprehending language
166
Nativist
the view that language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity
167
Family Resemblance
features that appear to be characteristic of category members but may not be possessed by every member
168
Prototype
the “best” or “most typical” member of a category
169
Exemplar theories
we make category judgments by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the category
170
Availability bias
is the proposal that our minds evolved to notice how frequently things occur, not how likely they are to occur-- it is most recent or handy in your memory
171
Representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut that involves making a probability judgment by comparing an object or event to a prototype of the object or event--use characteristics about a person to infer what they do/like
172
Conjunction fallacy
when people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event
173
Category-specific deficit
a neurological syndrome characterized by an inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category, although the ability to recognize objects outside the category is undisturbed
174
Rational choice theory
the classical view that we make decisions by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the value of the outcome, and then multiplying the two
175
Frequency format hypothesis
is the proposal that our minds evolved to notice how frequently things occur, not how likely they are to occur
176
Framing effects
when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased
177
Sunk-cost fallacy
a framing effect in which people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation
178
Prospect theory
people choose to take on risk when evaluating potential losses and avoid risks when evaluating potential gains
179
Ratio IQ
a statistic obtained by dividing a person’s mental age by the person’s physical age and then multiplying the quotient by 100. Works fine for Children, but not really for adults
180
Deviation IQ
a statistic obtained by dividing a person’s test score by the average test score of people in the same age group and then multiplying the quotient by 100. This works better for adults
181
Spearman’s two-factor theory of intelligence
every task requires a combination of a general ability (which he called g) and skills that are specific to the task (which he called s).
182
Thurstone’s primary mental abilities
Thurstone argued that just as we have games called baseball and basketball but no game called athletics, so we have abilities such as verbal ability and perceptual ability but no general ability called intelligence.
a. Verbal word fluency: ability to solve anagrams and to find rhymes
b. Verbal comprehension: ability to understand words and sentences
c. Numerical ability: ability to make mental and other numerical computations
d. Spatial visualization: ability to visualize a complex shape in various orientations
e. Associative Memory: ability to recall verbal material, learn pairs of unrelated words, etc.
f. Perceptual speed: ability to detect visual details quickly
g. Reasoning: ability to induce a general rule from a few instances
183
Fluid intelligence
the ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences
184
Crystallized intelligence
the ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience
185
Emotional intelligence
the ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance reasoning
186
Fraternal twins (Dizygotic twins)
develop from two different eggs that were fertilized by two different sperm, and although they happen to have the same parents and birthdays, they are merely siblings who shared a womb, so like any siblings, they share on average 50% of their genes
187
Identical twins (Monozygotic twins
develop from the splitting of a single egg that was fertilized by a single sperm, so unlike any other siblings, they are genetic duplicates of each other who share 100% of their genes
188
Shared environment
those environmental factors that are experienced by all relevant members of a household. For example, siblings raised in the same household have about the same level of affluence, the same number and type of books, the same diet, and so on
189
Nonshared environment
those environmental factors that are not experienced by all relevant members of a household. Siblings raised in the same household may have different friends and teachers and may contract different illnesses.
190
Appraisal
an evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus
191
Emotion regulation
the strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience
192
Reappraisal
changing one’s emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus
193
Terror management theory
a theory about how people respond to knowledge of their own mortality
194
Emotional expression
an observable sign of an emotional state
195
Facial feedback hypothesis
emotional expressions can cause emotional experiences
196
Universality hypothesis
all human beings naturally make and understand the same emotional expressions
197
Display rule
a norm for the appropriate expression of emotion
198
James-Lange theory
stimuli trigger activity in the body, which in turn produces emotional experiences in the brain. According to this theory, emotional experience is the consequence—not the cause—of our physiological reactions to objects and events in the world
199
Cannon-Bard theory
stimuli simultaneously trigger activity in the body and emotional experience in the brain
200
Two-factor theory (Schacter-Singer)
emotions are based on inferences about the causes of general physiological arousal; According to this theory, when you see a bear in your kitchen, your heart begins to pound. Your brain notices both the pounding and the bear, puts two and two together, and interprets your bodily arousal as fear. You have the same arousal for all emotions, you just label this feeling with an emotion once you realize what is causing this arousal.
201
Metabolism
the rate at which energy is used by the body
202
Bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging
203
Motivation
the purpose or goal of an action
204
Drive
an internal state that signals a physiological need
205
Need for achievement
the motivation to solve worthwhile problems
206
Intrinsic motivation
a motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding.
207
Extrinsic motivation]
a motivation to take actions that lead to reward
208
Conscious motivation
motivations of which people are aware
209
Unconscious motivation
motivations of which people are not aware
210
Approach motivation
a motivation to experience a positive outcome
211
Avoidance motivation
a motivation not to experience a negative outcome.
212
Developmental psychology
the study of continuity and change across the life span
213
Zygote
a fertilized egg
214
Germinal stage
the 2-week period of prenatal development that begins at conception
215
Embryonic stage
a period of prenatal development that lasts from the 2nd week until about the 8th week
216
Fetal stage
the period of prenatal development that lasts from the 9th week until birth.
217
Myelination
is the formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a neuron
218
Teratogens
Agents that impair development
219
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS
a developmental disorder caused by heavy alcohol use during pregnancy
220
Motor development
the emergence of the ability to execute physical actions
221
Reflexes
specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation
222
Cephalocaudal rule
(or the “top-to-bottom” rule), which describes the tendency for motor behavior to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet.
223
Proximodistal rule
or the “inside-to-outside” rule), which describes the tendency for motor behavior to emerge in sequence from the center to the periphery
224
Temperaments
characteristic pattern of emotional reactivity
225
Infancy
the stage of development that begins at birth and lasts between 18 and 24 months
226
Childhood
the stage of development that begins at about 18 to 24 months and lasts until about 11 to 14 years
227
Adolescence
the period of development that begins with the onset of sexual maturity (about 11 to 14 years of age) and lasts until the beginning of adulthood (about 18 to 21 years of age)
228
Puberty
the bodily changes associated with sexual maturity
229
Primary sex characteristics
bodily structures that are directly involved in reproduction
230
Secondary sex characteristics
bodily structures that change dramatically with sexual maturity but that are not directly involved in reproduction
231
Sensorimotor stage
a period of development that begins at birth and lasts through infancy
232
Preoperational stage
the stage of cognitive development that begins at about 2 years and ends at about 6 years, during which children develop a preliminary understanding of the physical world
233
Concrete operational stage
the stage of cognitive development that begins at about 6 years and ends at about 11 years, during which children learn how actions or “operations” can transform the “concrete” objects of the physical world.
234
Formal operational stage
the final stage of cognitive development that begins around the age of 11, during which children learn to reason about abstract concepts.
235
Schemas
theories about of the way the world works
236
Object permanence
the belief that objects exist even when they are not visible
237
Conservation
is the notion that basic properties of an object do not change despite changes in the object’s appearance
238
Egocentrism
the failure to understand that the world appears different to different people
239
Assimilation
the process by which infants apply their schemas in novel situations.
240
Accommodation
the process by which infants revise their schemas to take new information into account
241
Attachment
an emotional bond with a primary caregiver
242
Secure
When the caregiver leaves, secure infants may or may not be distressed. When she returns, the distressed infants go to her and are calmed by her presence, while non-distressed infants acknowledge her with a glance or greeting
243
Avoidant
When the caregiver leaves, avoidant infants are not distressed, but when she returns, they don’t acknowledge her
244
Ambivalent
When the caregiver leaves, ambivalent infants are distressed, and when she returns, they rebuff her, refusing any attempt at calming while arching their backs and squirming to get away
245
Disorganized
When their caregiver leaves and returns, disorganized infants show no consistent pattern of response
246
Internal working model of relationships
a set of beliefs about the self, the primary caregiver, and the relationship between them
247
Preconventional stage
a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor
248
Conventional stage
a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules.
249
Post conventional stage
a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values, such as the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness
250
Aggression
behavior whose purpose is to harm another
251
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
that animals aggress when their desires are frustrated
252
Cooperation
behavior by two or more individuals that leads to mutual benefit
253
Altruism
behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself
254
Reciprocal altruism
behavior that benefits another with the expectation that those benefits will be returned in the future
255
Mere exposure effect
the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure
256
Prejudice
a positive or negative evaluation of another person based on the person’s group membership
257
Discrimination
positive or negative behavior toward another person based on the person’s group membership
258
Common knowledge effect
the tendency for group discussions to focus on information that all members share
259
Group polarization
the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than any member would have made alone
260
Groupthink
the tendency for groups to reach consensus in order to facilitate interpersonal harmony
261
Deindividuation
occurs when immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values
262
Diffusion of responsibility
the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way
263
Bystander intervention
the act of helping strangers in an emergency situation
264
Kin selection
the process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives
265
Passionate love
an experience involving feelings of euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction
266
Compassionate love
an experience involving affection, trust, and concern for a partner’s well-being
267
Norms
customary standards for behavior that are widely shared by members of a culture
268
Social exchange
the hypothesis that people remain in relationships only as long as they perceive a favorable ratio of costs to benefits
269
Social influence
the control of one person’s behavior by another
270
Norm of reciprocity
the unwritten rule that people should benefit those who have benefited them
271
Normative influence
a phenomenon that occurs when another person’s behavior provides information about what is appropriate
272
Informal influence
a phenomenon that occurs when another person’s behavior provides information about what is true
273
Stereotyping
the process by which people draw inferences about people based on their knowledge of the categories to which those people belong
274
Conformity
the tendency to do what others do simply because others are doing it
275
Obedience
the tendency to do what authorities tell us to do
276
Attitude
an enduring positive or negative evaluation of an object or event
277
Belief
an enduring piece of knowledge about an object or event
278
Systematic persuasion
the process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to reason
279
Heuristic persuasion
the process by which attitudes or beliefs are changed by appeals to habit or emotion
280
Foot-in-the-door technique
a social influence technique that involves making a small request before making a large request
281
Social cognition
the processes by which people come to understand others
282
Cognitive dissonance
an unpleasant state that arises when a person recognizes the inconsistency of his or her actions, attitudes, or beliefs
283
Perceptual confirmation
the tendency for people to see what they expect to see
284
Self-fulfilling prophecy
the tendency for people to behave as they are expected to behave
285
Attribution
an inference about the cause of a person’s behavior
286
Correspondence bias
the tendency to make dispositional attributions instead of situational attributions
287
Actor-observer effect
the tendency to make situational attributions for our own behaviors while making dispositional attributions for the identical behavior of other
288
Situational
when we decide that a person’s behavior was caused by some temporary aspect of the situation in which it occurred
289
Dispositional
when we decide that a person’s behavior was caused by a relatively enduring tendency to think, feel, or act in a particular way
290
Stressors
specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person’s well-being
291
Health psychology
the subfield of psychology concerned with the ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health
292
Stress
the physical and psychological response to internal or external stressors
293
Chronic stressor
sources of stress that occur continuously or repeatedly
294
Learned helplessness
the belief that one has no control over one’s situation based on past experience
295
Fight-or-flight response
is an emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action
296
General adaptation syndrome (GAS
three-stage physiological stress response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered
297
Telomeres
caps at the ends of each chromosome that protect the ends of chromosomes and prevent them from sticking to each other
298
Immune system
a complex response system that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances
299
Primary Appraisal
Primary appraisal allows you to realize that a small dark spot on your shirt is a stressor (spider!) or that a 70-mile-per-hour drop from a great height in a small car full of screaming people may not be (roller coaster!).
300
Secondary Appraisal
determining whether the stressor is something you can handle or not—that is, whether you have control over the event
301
Threats
a stressor you believe you might not be able to overcome
302
Challenges
a stressor you feel fairly confident you can control
303
Type A behavior pattern
a tendency toward easily aroused hostility, impatience, a sense of time urgency, and competitive achievement strivings
304
Burnout
a state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion created by long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation
305
Psychosomatic illness
an interaction between mind and body that can produce illness
306
Somatic symptom disorders
the set of psychological disorders in which a person with at least one bodily symptom displays significant health-related anxiety, expresses disproportionate concerns about symptoms, and devotes excessive time and energy to symptoms or health concerns
307
Sick role
a socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness
308
Self-regulation
the exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards
309
Repressive coping
avoiding situations or thoughts that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint
Something bad happened to you (like being held in captivity) but you instead only talk about all of the positive things that are going on in your life right now. Can work for people who are repressors, but for others it can just add more stress
310
Rational coping
facing the stressor and working to overcome it.
a. You lost your job, but you accept that and work hard to find a new job
i. Step 1: Acceptance: coming to realize that a stressor exists and cannot be wished away
ii. Step 2: Exposure: attending to the stressor, thinking about it, and even seeking it out
iii. Step 3: Prolonged exposure: relive the traumatic event daily
311
Reframing
1) finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat.
a. Writing in a diary until you find a new perspective on the situation
312
Meditation
the practice of intentional contemplation.
313
Relaxation therapy
a technique for reducing tension by consciously relaxing muscles of the body
314
Relaxation response
a condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, breathing rate, and blood pressure
315
Biofeedback
the use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and possibly gain control over that function
316
Social support
aid gained through interacting with others
317
Tend and Befriend
taking care of people and bringing them together
How women cope
318
Mental disorders
as a persistent disturbance or dysfunction in behavior, thoughts, or emotions that causes significant distress or impairment
319
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
a classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder and indicates how the disorder can be distinguished from other, similar problems.
320
Comorbidity
the co-occurrence of two or more disorders in a single individual
321
Research Domain Criteria Project (RDoC)
new initiative that aims to guide the classification and understanding of mental disorders by revealing the basic processes that give rise to them
322
Medical model
abnormal psychological experiences are conceptualized as illnesses that, like physical illnesses, have biological and environmental causes, defined symptoms, and possible cures
323
Biopsychosocial perspective
explains mental disorders as the result of interactions among biological, psychological, and social factors.
324
Diathesis-stress model
suggests that a person may be predisposed for a psychological disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress.
325
Anxiety disorder
the class of mental disorder in which anxiety is the predominant feature
326
Phobic disorders
disorders characterized by marked, persistent, and excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations.
327
Specific phobia
a disorder that involves an irrational fear of a particular object or situation that markedly interferes with an individual’s ability to function
328
Social phobia
a disorder that involves an irrational fear of being publicly humiliated or embarrassed
329
Preparedness theory
the idea that people are instinctively predisposed toward certain fears
330
Panic disorder
a disorder characterized by the sudden occurrence of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror
331
Agoraphobia
a specific phobia involving a fear of public places
332
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
involves a chronic state of anxiety not focused on any particular threat
333
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) designed to fend off those thoughts interfere significantly with an individual’s functioning
334
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD
a disorder characterized by chronic physiological arousal, recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma, and avoidance of things that call the traumatic event to mind.
335
Mood disorders
mental disorders that have mood disturbance as their predominant feature and take two main forms: depression (also called unipolar depression) and bipolar disorder (so named because people go from one end of the emotional pole [extreme depression] to the other [extreme mania]).
336
Major depressive disorder (or unipolar depression)
disorder characterized by a severely depressed mood and/or inability to experience pleasure that lasts 2 or more weeks and is accompanied by feelings of worthlessness, lethargy, and sleep and appetite disturbance.
337
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
recurrent depressive episodes in a seasonal pattern
338
Helplessness theory
the idea that individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal (i.e., their own fault), stable (i.e., unlikely to change), and global (i.e., widespread).
339
Bipolar disorder
a condition characterized by cycles of abnormal, persistent high mood (mania) and low mood (depression
340
Expressed emotion
a measure of how much hostility, criticism, and emotional over involvement are used when speaking about a family member with a mental disorder
341
Schizophrenia
a psychotic disorder (psychosis is a break from reality) characterized by the profound disruption of basic psychological processes; a distorted perception of reality; altered or blunted emotion; and disturbances in thought, motivation, and behavior
342
Positive symptoms
thoughts and behaviors not seen in those without the disorder
343
Hallucinations
false perceptual experiences that have a compelling sense of being real despite the absence of external stimulation (P)
344
Delusions
patently false beliefs, often bizarre and grandiose, that are maintained in spite of their irrationality (P)
345
Disorganized speech
a severe disruption of verbal communication in which ideas shift rapidly and incoherently among unrelated topics (P)
346
Grossly disorganized behavior
behavior that is inappropriate for the situation or ineffective in attaining goals, often with specific motor disturbances (P)
347
Catatonic behavior
a marked decrease in all movement or an increase in muscular rigidity and overactivity
348
Negative symptoms
deficits or disruptions to normal emotions and behaviors.
349
Cognitive symptoms
deficits in cognitive abilities, specifically in executive functioning, attention, and working memory
350
Dopamine hypothesis
the idea that schizophrenia involves an excess of dopamine activity.
351
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
a condition beginning in early childhood in which a person shows persistent communication deficits as well as restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviors, interests, or activities
352
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a persistent pattern of severe problems with inattention and/or hyperactivity or impulsiveness that cause significant impairments in functioning
353
Conduct disorder
a condition in which a child or adolescent engages in a persistent pattern of deviant behavior involving aggression against people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, or serious rule violations
354
Personality disorders
enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, or relating to others or controlling impulses that deviate from cultural expectations and cause distress or impaired functioning
355
Antisocial personality disorder (APD)
a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood
356
Suicide
intentional self-inflicted death
357
Suicide attempt
self-inflicted injury from which a person has at least some intention of dying
358
Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)
direct, deliberate destruction of body tissue in the absence of any intent to die
359
Random assignment
a procedure that lets chance assign people to the experimental or the control group
