Final Exam Flashcards
(213 cards)
1
Q
cell membrane
A
- forms outer boundary of the cell
- determines what substances enter and exit cell
- has a double layer of phospholipids containing proteins that function as membrane channels, carrier and receptor molecules, enzymes, and structural components of membrane.
2
Q
nucleus
A
- surrounded by a double membrane with pores.
- contains chromatin (DNA)
- contains nucleolus
3
Q
ribosome
A
site of protein synthesis
- can be attached to endoplasmic reticulum or free within cytoplasm
4
Q
endoplasmic reticulum
A
- network of connecting sacs and canals
- carry substances through the cytoplasm
- rough er: has ribosomes, site of protein synthesis
- smooth er: no ribosomes, site of lipid synthesis
5
Q
Golgi appartatus
A
collection of membranous sacs
- collect, modify, package, and distribute proteins and lipids produced by ER
6
Q
mitochondria
A
site of atp production
7
Q
lysosomes
A
membrane sacs containing digestive enzymes
-break down unwanted substances
8
Q
secretory vesicles
A
carry substances from the Golgi apparatus to the cell membrane where the vesicle contents are released
9
Q
cytoskeleton
A
- supports the cytoplasm and organelles.
- involved with movement of material within the cell and the cell itself.
10
Q
cilia
A
fine, hair like extensions that move substances over the cell surface
11
Q
flagella
A
longer than cilia used to propel the cell.
12
Q
microvilli
A
increase surface area of the cell and aid in absorption
13
Q
epithelial tissue
A
-forms a protective covering (lines mouth to prevent abrasion) -barriers (skin prevents h2o loss) -permitting passage of substance (diffusion of o2 and co2 in lungs, nephron in kidneys) -secreting (sweat gland, mucous gland) -absorbing (lining of small intestine)
14
Q
Long bone
A
most of arm and leg bones.
15
Q
diaphysis of long bone
A
shaft - compact bone surrounding inner cavity
16
Q
medullary cavity of long bone
A
contains yellow marrow
17
Q
epiphysis of long bone
A
spongey bone surround by compact bone
18
Q
articular cartilage of long bone
A
surrounds epiphysis
19
Q
spinal column
A
- made up of vertebrae separated from each other by intervertebral disks
- cervical (5), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacrum (pelvic girdle, 5), coccyx (tailbone, 4)
20
Q
body of spinal cord
A
weight bearing portion
21
Q
arch of spinal cord
A
surrounds vertebral foramen
22
Q
transverse processes of spinal cord
A
extend laterally from side of arch
23
Q
spinnous process of spinal cord
A
projects dorsally
24
Q
foramen of spinal cord
A
vertebral and intervertebral (where nerves run through spinal cord)
25
what do bones produce
red marrow (manufactures blood cells), yellow marrow (produces fat)
26
gliding joint
bone surfaces slide over one another. (wrist and ankle)
27
hinge joint
movement in one direction (knees, elbows, fingers)
28
pivot joint
rotation around length of bone, (between 1st and 2nd cervical vertebrae)
29
condyloid joint
movement in 2 directions (between metacarpal and phalanx of finger)
30
saddle joint
like condyloid but deeper articulating surfaces (between wrist and thumb-circle thumb)
31
ball-and-socket joint
movement in many directions around central point (shoulder and hip joint)
32
tendons
attach muscle to bone
33
ligament
attaches bone to bone
34
smooth muscle
- makes up walls of hollow body organs, respiratory passageways, and blood vessels
- Involuntary movement
- stimulated by nerve impluses, hormones
- cell: tapered ends, single nucleus, no stripes
35
muscles of respiration
diaphragm, intercostal muscles
36
actin
thin myofilaments (protein fibres)
37
myosin
thick myofilaments (protein fibres)
38
muscle contraction
myosin attaches to actin by cross bridge and pulls the actin filaments together
- calcium transportation
- lots of o2 is needed
39
connective tissue
supports and forms framework
-has specialized proteins.
acts as a membrane, supports movement of bone and cartilage, (stores, cushions, and insults fat), transports blood, protects immune system and bones.
40
cardiac muscle
```
involuntary movement (heart wall)
- single nucleus, striped, controlled by autonomic nervous system
```
41
skeletal muscle
voluntary (conscious control)
- attach to bones by tendons
- cell: long, multiple nuclei, heavily striped
- stimulated by somatic nervous system
42
cardiac output
volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in one min (mL/min)
43
stroke volume
volume of blood pumped from each ventricle with each heart beat (mL/beat)
44
cardiac reserve
difference between resting heart rate and hearts maximum capacity for pumping blood
45
influences on heart rate
nervous system, hormones and internal environment
46
medulla oblongata
In brainstem
| -controls heart beat
47
bradycardia
heart rate is less than 60 bpm
48
tachycardia
heart rate is more than 100 bpm
49
sinus arrhythmia
variation on HR caused by breathing
50
systolic pressure
normal -120 mmHg
| heart contraction
51
diastolic pressure
heart relaxation
| normal: 80 mmHg
52
blood plasma
91% water, 8% plasma proteins, 1%(glucose, amino acids, lipids....)
53
platelet
smallest formed elements, essential for preventing blood loss(clotting), form a platelet plug at site of injury (which clots)
54
type a blood
a antigens and b antibodies
55
type b blood
b antigens and a antibodies
56
type ab blood
both a and b antigens, no antibodies.
57
type O blood
neither a or b antigens, has both a and b antibodies.
58
arteries
carry blood away from heart.
| -thick muscular walls.
59
arterioles
thinner walls than arteries
60
veins
carry blood to the heart. thinner and less elasticity than arteries.
- one way valves
61
venules
smaller than vein
62
respiration
1. ventilation (breathing) - air in and out of lungs
2. external gas exchange - between lungs and blood
3. transport of O2 and CO2 in blood
4. internal gas exchange - between blood and tissues
63
gastric juice
stimulated in response to stimulation from autonomic nervous system
-Is a combo of mucus(protects), hydrochloric acid(kills bacteria), pepsinogen(breaks down protein)
64
large intestine
absorbs: vit c and b (water), (a,d,e,k -fat), and water
65
bile
emulsifies fats by the gallbladder once chyme enters the duodenum
66
pancreas
behind stomach
| -has enzymes that digest fats. enzymes stimulated by CCK hormone
67
lacteals
absorb fatty acids
68
function of liver
synthesizes bile and plasma protein, nutrient storage and breakdown, breakdown of old RBC's and toxins, activates vitamin d
69
blood enters the nephron through the....
glomerulus. other substances are pushed through to the bowmans capsule
70
what is the urinary bladder lined with?
transitional epithelium to stretch. has rugae(folds)
71
nitrogenous wastes
urea, uric acid
72
urine formation
blood leaves the afferent arteriole into glomerulus(filtration), then substances move from nephron back to blood through the proximal convoluted tubule and loop of Henle (reabsorption), movement of substances from blood into nephron through distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct(secretion)
73
spleen
largest amount of lymphatic tissue
- macrophages detect and get rid of foreign substances in blood
- destroy old RBC's
- acts a a resevior for blood
74
lymph
water and substances found in blood plasma that used to be interstitial fluid but once it enters lymphatic vessels changes to lymph.
75
b cells
bind to foreign antigens and produce antibodies to fight it off
76
memory b cells
responsible for response when antigen enters body second time . fast antibody production
77
cytotoxic t cells
enzymes to destroy cells with foreign antigens and cancer cells
78
helper t cells
releases cytokines to help other cells (t, c, macrophages)
79
regulatory t cells
inhibit b and T cells after antigens are destroyed
80
TSH
stimulates release of thyroid hormone from thyroid, in the anterior pituitary.
81
anterior pituitary
makes it own hormones and controlled by hormones from hypothalamus
82
posterior pituitary
stores hormones made in hypothalamus then released when needed.
83
ACTH
increase release of cortisol from adrenal cortex. made in anterior pit
84
FSH
stimulates follicle maturation and estrogen secretion, sperm production.made in anterior pit.
85
LH
made in anterior pit. induces ovulation and secretion of estrogen and progesterone.
86
Prolactin
made in anterior pit. stimulates milk production and release.
87
GH (growth)
made in anterior pit. stimulates growth, cell repair, metabolism, stimulates immune system.
88
ADH
secreted by posterior pit. released when low blood volume, promotes reabsorption of water from kidneys, decreasing water excretion, increased BP.
89
oxytocin
secreted by posterior pit. uterine contraction and milk release.
90
epinephrine and norepinephrine
secreted by adrenal gland. stress 'fight or flight' - adrenaline and noradrenaline. stimulated by sympathetic nervous system
91
aldosterone
secreted by adrenal gland. regulates electrolyte balance in blood
92
cortisol
secreted by adrenal gland. raise glucose levels in blood by breaking down proteins and lipds. suppress inflammatory response, stimulated by ACTH
93
androgens
secreted by adrenal gland. sex hormones, stimulate development of sex characteristics. secreted in small amounts
94
t3 and t4
secreted by thyroid glands. regulate metabolism. activated by TSH from anterior pit.
95
calcitonin
secreted by thyroid gland. when blood calcium is high-lowers it by depositing calcium in bone tissue and inhibiting osteoclasts
96
PTH
secreted by parathyroid. raises blood calcium when not enough. promotes calcium release from bones tissue (osteoclasts) and causes kidney to conserve calcium
97
glucagon
secreted by pancreas. released in response to low blood glucose levels. target tissue is liver.
98
insulin
secreted by pancreas. high blood glucose levels, gets rid of glucose. helps liver make glycogen. digestion. stops us from feeling hungry.
99
testosterone
produced in testes. develops male sex organs and secondary sex characteristics
100
estrogen
secreted by ovaries. develops female sex organs and secondary sex characteristics. growth of uterus and mammary glands.
101
progesterone
secreted by ovaries. assists in normal development of pregnancy. maintains lining of uterus and supresses contractions
102
HCG
secreted by placenta. maintains uterine wall until placenta drops.
103
HPL
secreted by placenta. causes changes in uterine lining, maintains pregnancy and lactation
104
thymosin
secreted by thymus gland. stimulates maturation of t cells
105
melatonin
secreted by pineal gland. produced during dark -Influences sleep pattern. plays role in onset of puberty.
106
dendrites
conduct impulses toward the cell body. receptor detect stimuli
107
cell body
contains nucleus and cellular organelles
108
axon
conduct nerve impulses away from cell body
109
somatic nervous system
voluntary (skeletal muscle)
110
autonomic nervous system
involuntary and contains sympathetic (stress-epinepphrine&norepinephrine) and parasympathetic (rest-acetylcholine)
111
norepinephrine
involved in autonomic nervous system (fight or flight)
112
acetylcholine
muscle contraction, excitatory actions for cognition, memory and arousal
113
reflex arc
1. receptor cell that detects a stimulus
2. sensory neuron transmits impulses to CNS
3. Interneuron transmits impulses and formulates response.
4. Motor neuron transmits impulses from interneuron to effector.
5. Effector: receiver of impulse outside the CNS that carries out a response.
114
sensory neuron
transmits impulses to CNS
115
motor neuron
transmits impulses from interneuron to effector.
116
spinal nerves
31 pairs
- mixed of sensory and motor neurons.
- attach to spinal cord by 2 roots: dorsal (sensory enter) and ventral (motor neurons exit)
117
dura mater of meninges
outer layer, thickest, fused to cranium.
| - has dural sinuses which drain venous blood from brain.
118
arachnoid mater of meninges
dedicated with cobwebby fibres that attach to the inner layer (Pia).
- has subarachnoid space which allows for flow of cerebrospinal fluid
119
Pia mater of meninges
inner layer, surrounds brain, and brings nutrients and o2 to the brain.
120
epidermis
top layer of epithelial cells
121
dermis
thick connective tissue layer bellow the epidermis and above the hypodermis. contain blood vessels, nerve endings, oil gland, sweat glands, and hair follicles.
122
hypodermis (subcataneous)
loose connective tissue that connects skin to muscle and bone and contains much of the bodys stored fat. connects dermis and epidermis to underlying muscles.
123
melanin
produced by melanocytes
- found in skin, hair, eyes
- protects against UV radiation
- darker skin = more melanin
124
hemoglobin
pigment in red blood cells
125
carotene
pigment related to vitamin a, found in fatty tissue.
126
sweat glands
coiled tubular structures in the dermis and hypodermis
- end in a pore on skin surface
- function: cool body and remove wastes.
- two main types: eccrine and apocrine
127
eccrine glands
sweat glands found all over body's pores.
| -release sweat -water and wastes
128
apocrine glands
sweat glands found in armpits and groin
- start secreting at puberty
- release cellular material
- body odour occurs from bacteria break down.
129
ceruminous gland
modified sweat gland
| - makes ear wax
130
ciliary gland
modified sweat gland
| -lubricates eyes with tears
131
mammary glands
modified sweat gland.
| -makes milk
132
sebaceous gland
oil gland
- open into hair follicles
- create sebum which:
- lubricates skin and hair
- production increases during puberty
133
nail
grow from nail root
- made up of epidermal cells with keratin (Harden)
- nail bed is pink because close to capillary bed
134
lunula
white moon on the nail bed
135
functions of skin
protection against infection, dehydration, regulation of body temp, collection of sensory info, absorption of substances, elimination of wastes, vit D production.
136
olfaction
sense of smell
- impulses are carried into the olfactory bulb and along the olfactory nerve to olfactory centre in the temporal cortex of the brain for interpretation.
137
fibrous tunic
outer layer of the eye.
| -Includes sclera, cornea, conjunctivitis
138
vascular tunic
middle layer of eye
| - includes: choroid, iris, pupil, lens, ciliary muscle.
139
nervous tunic
inner layer of eye
| - includes retina and macula lutea
140
external ear
hearing
- includes auricle and external auditory meatus
- ends at eardrum (tympanic membrane)
141
pathway of equilibrium
movement of head, stimulates equilibrium receptors in the inner ear, vestibular nerve fibres join with cochlear nerve fibres, become vestibulocochlear nerve.
142
static equilibrium
sense of moving in a straight line
143
dynamic equilibrium
sense of direction in space
144
semicircular canals
3 tubes containing receptors for equillibrium
145
uterus
provides protection, nutrition, and waste removal for the embryo.
composed of top area, body and cervix.
3 layers - perimetrium, myometrium, endometrium
146
perimetrium
outer serous membrane of the uterus
147
myometrium
thick smooth muscle of the uterus
148
endometrium
mucous membrane of uterus
149
perineum
pelvic floor area between vagina and anus
150
FSH during menstrual cycle
- on day 5, it stimulates several ovarian follicles in the ovary to mature.
- in the luteal phase, (day 15-28). estrogen and progesterone is released which inhibits the release of FSH (negative feedback loop)
- day 1-7, lack of estrogen releases FSH.
151
menstrual phase
day 1-7 in menstrual cycle,
- if no fertilization corpus lute stop releasing estrogen and progesterone. causing endometrium to break away from uterus (menstruation)
- lack of estrogen = FSH production
152
follicular phase
day 7-13 in menstrual cycle
-day 5 FSH stimulates follicles to mature. follicle releases estrogen which thickens the endometrium and prepares uterus for implantation of fertilized egg. stops FSH stimulates LH.
153
ovulation phase
day 14 of menstrual cycle.
- increase estrogen-rises LH- follicle ruptures. this discharges mature egg cell into Fallopian tube.
follicle becomes corpus luteum- releases estrogen and progesterone to thicken endometrium
154
luteal phase
day 15-28 of menstrual cycle, egg makes its way through Fallopian tube to uterus. estrogen and progesterone released. thickening of endometrium. inhibits release of FSH and LH.
155
semen
mix of sperm and fluid from accessory glands.
| -functions: nourish sperm, tranport sperm, neutralize acidity, lubricate during intercourse, prevent infection.
156
acrosome of sperm
contains enzyme to penetrate egg
157
head of sperm
contains nucleus with 23 chromosomes
158
mid piece of sperm
contains many mitochondria
159
flagellum of sperm
propels sperm forward
160
seminiferous tubules
hollow tubes that produce sperm
161
interstitial cells
produce testosterone
162
epididymis
connects to seminiferous tubules
| - sperm mature for a few days and become able to move.
163
vas deferens
carries sperm from epididymis
164
ejaculatory duct
seminal vesicle joins vas deferens, moves through prostate to urethra
165
seminal vesicles
sugar, enzymes, prostaglandins
166
prostate gland
alkaline secretion
| aids sperm mobility
167
bulbouretheral gland
mucus that cleans and lubricates urethra
168
scrotum
outer sac that holds the testes
169
urethra
carries urine and semen
170
prepuce
foreskin
171
hCG hormone
- released by embryonic cells after implantation
- stimulates corpus luteum to continue producing progesterone to maintain endometrium and estrogen to enlarge uterus and breasts.
- Inhibits FSH and LH
172
hPL
stimulates breast growth.
| regulates maternal blood nutrient levels to provide for fetus.
173
relaxin
towards end of pregnancy.
softens cervix
relaxes sacral joint and pubic symphysis
174
placenta
forms at second week. separates maternal and fetal blood. provides nutrition, respiration and excretion for fetus.
175
umbilical cord
has 2 arteries (CO2) and 1 vein (O2)
176
amniotic membrane/sac
fluid filled sac around embryo
177
amniotic fluid
provides protection, maintains temperature, movement, musculoskeletal development, fluid source.
178
umbilical vein
brings o2 blood from placenta to vena cava and in right atrium
179
umbilical artery
helps co2 blood return to the placenta
180
pathway of fetal blood.....
bypasses lungs through foramen oval to left atrium or through pulmonary trunk to ductus arterioles to aorta.
181
causes of contractions
- stretched uterus stimulates prostaglandins
- pressure on cervix stimulates oxytocin
- cortisol from fetus adrenal cortex inhibits mothers progesterone.
182
parturition
(birth)
| contractions, baby head moves down, increased uterine contractions, cervix softens and gradually dialates.
183
chromosomes
all human cells, except gametes have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs one from father one from mother.)
- one chromosome pair determines sex
184
autosomes
other 22 pairs that dont determine sex
185
genes
segments of DNA along chromosomes in the nucleus
| - carries code for a specific trait.
186
daughter cells
cells that have duplicate dna after they have divided.
187
alleles
genes that are in a pair and on a specific part of the chromosome
188
dominant gene
an allele that is expressed
189
received gene
an allele whose trait is hidden
190
heterozygous
alleles for a trait are different (1 dominant, 1 recessive)
191
homozygous
alleles for a trait are the same (both dominant and both recessive)
192
carrier
doesn't show trait but has recessive gene for that trait
193
embryonic phase
week 3-8
all organs and structures are established and most susceptible to damage.
heart is beating at wk 4
194
fetal phase
9th week to birth
195
germinal phase
first phase. 0-2 weeks
196
prolaction
stimulates milk production
197
oxytocin
stimulates milk let down
198
colostrum
first 3 days.
| rich in immunoglobulins, proteins, vitamins and minerals
199
transitional milk
made after the colostrum
200
mature milk
after 2 weeks
- thin and bluish in color
- lower immunoglobins and protein, high lactose, fats and calories.
201
brainstem
connects spinal cord to brain
| -controls primitive life sustaining processes
202
reticular formation
central core of brainstem
| -regulates consciousness (wakes you up in the morning)
203
medulla oblongata
- In brainstem, below pons.
| - controls reflexes, respiratory center, cardiac centre, vasomotor center (blood).
204
pons
in brainstem
relays info between cerebrum and cerebellum
- part of the respiratory center
205
midbrain
in brainstem
- relay center for auditory and visual reflexes(turning towards a loud noise)
- pathway between cerebrum and spinal cord.
206
cerebellum
little brain
| controls balance, muscle tone, coordination of fine movements. allows us to learn complex movements
207
diencephalon
includes hypothalamus, thalamus, pineal gland, and pituitary gland.
- plays a vital role in conscious and unconscious sensory info and motor commands
208
hypothalamus
```
in diencephalon
located below the thalamus
maintains homeostasis
emotional responses
controls release of hormone by pituitary gland
```
209
pituitary gland
in diencephalon
attached to hypothalamus
releases hormones
210
thalamus
in diencephalon
located between cerebrum and hypothalamus
filters and sends info to cerebrum
associates sensation into emotion
211
pineal gland
in diencephalon
located behind the thalamus
releases melatonin in response to the amount of light
keeps our body clock regulated
212
cerebrum
has hemispheres divived by fissures.
has gyri (ridges)
sulci (grooves)
213
cerebral cortex
-knowledge, memory, intellect, judgement, consciousness, sensations, movement.
