Final Exam

Question 1

What are the differences between facts,
theories, and interpretations? Why do
these differences matter?

Answer 1

Fact - empirical
Theory - mathematics behind the theory
Interpretations - philosophical questions about reality

Facts are not the theory nor do they prove the theory but the theory came first and does explain the facts there are alternative theories. There is no real way to know what interpretation is the correct one.

Question 2

What are the quantum facts?

Answer 2

When an electron gun fires at two split w/o a detector a particle pattern occurs with a detector a wave pattern occurs

Or an experiment with photon splitters and beam combiners again when off wave pattern when on particle pattern

Question 3

What are electrons? Protons? How do

we produce them?

Answer 3

Particles with a charge can be produced by “electron/proton gun”

Question 4

What is a particle? What is a wave? How

do they differ?

Answer 4

Wave does not exist at a defined point a particle does

Question 5

Why is there a concern for reality when it

comes to quantum entities?

Answer 5

Because they appear to be both particles and waves which does not fit our current understanding of reality

Question 6

What is meant by the “wave effect” and
the “particle effect” in the two-slit
apparatus experimental set-up?

Answer 6

Wave effect has the bar like patterns whereas the particle effect has dots and only one detector goes off at a time

Question 7

Compare and contrast the differences

between experiments 1, 2, 3, & 4.

Answer 7

1 + 2 two slit experiment 1 off = wave 2 on = particle

3 + 4 same but with beam splitter and combiner

Question 8

What are the results of these experiments surprising?

Answer 8

Because it sugests not only that at the quantum level particles can be both a wave and a particle additionally that measurement can impact such state

Question 9

particle v wave mathematics

Answer 9

particle - dropping a bowling ball it deals with a concrete object

wave - not discrete uses different math

Question 10

If the mathematics for quantum is not
controversial, why is quantum theory so
unusual? What are the minor and the
major issues DeWitt discusses?

Answer 10

The math isn’t controversial because it is correct it is the implications of the theory that are controversial (major)

also instead of providing exact predictions its predictions are probabilistic (minor)

Question 11

What is the unremarkable fact about
wave mathematics? remarkable

What is the bottom line of these two
facts about wave mathematics?

Answer 11

Waves come in families

any wave can be produced with just those of one family (if certain combination)

quantum system is represented as wave - measurements are associated with a family of waves - predictions about the outcome are arrived at by finding the members of the measurement family that produce the quantum representation

Question 12

What is meant by the interpretation of

mathematics? Why is this important?

Answer 12

What we take the mathematics to mean about reality

Because it impacts our worldview and is controvertial

Question 13

What is a wave function

Answer 13

a piece of wave mathematics for a system - usually represents a quantum system

Question 14

What are the three measurable qualities of quantum entities

Answer 14

position momentum and spin

Question 15

What does Schrödinger’s equation allow
scientists to do? What is the rough
analog DeWitt draws?

Answer 15

allows predictions of quantum systems over time like newton’s equations do

Question 16

What is the measurement problem

Answer 16

one aspect of the measurement problem is that technically anything can be used to make measurements

the question then becomes why do quantum entities seem to behave differently when they are measured if it is arbitrary

Question 17

What is the standard approach to quantum theory

Answer 17

The approach that uses the standard mathematics of quantum theory the “Copenhagen” interpretation

Question 18

What is a measurement

Answer 18

A way humans gain information about an object notably measurement is dependent on what is of interest to us

Question 19

Measurement in Newtonian physicis

Answer 19

Taking measurements has no impact on the system

Question 20

Measurement in Quantum physics

Answer 20

leads to the collapse of the wave function

Question 21

What is superposition of states

Answer 21

When a wave function has a quantum entity existing in two or more different states such as when a photon hits a beam slitter

Question 22

What is the projection postulate and what else is it known as?

What does the projection postulate have
to do with superposition and
Schrödinger’s equation?

Answer 22

the projection postulate is that when we make a measurement of a wave function we insert that measurement into the wave function leading to its collapse

it ends the evolution of superposition in Schrodinger’s equation collapsing the wave function

Question 23

What is the collapse of the wave function
(also referred to as the reduction of the
wave packet)? How does DeWitt decide
to treat this terminology?

Answer 23

It is when the mathematics of the equation cause the quantum entity to no longer exist in a state of superposition

for Dewitt this is understood instrumentally as representing the mathematics

Question 24

What is a thought experiment

Answer 24

an experiment that is thought out rather than preformed in order to explore a problem (so that we don’t have to kill cats unnecessarily in this case)

Question 25

What is Schrödinger’s cat? Why is it | worth knowing about?

Answer 25

It demonstrates how a state of superposition could technically move up to a macro level

Question 26

``` What are the issues involving instrumentalism/realism or subjectivity/ objectivity with understanding the mathematics of quantum theory with regard to measurement? ```

Answer 26

How can something subjective (what counts as a measurement) effect something that is supposedly objective (science and the natural world)

Question 27

What difference, if any, does the distinction between measurement contexts and non-measurement contexts make?

Answer 27

in non-measurement contexts we apply Schrodinger's equation in measurement contexts we apply the collapse postulate strange in that this distinction relies on the subjective idea of what constitutes a measurement

Question 28

What is the distinction between system | and apparatus? What difference, if any, does it make regarding the measurement problem

Answer 28

system - ie the quantum system apparatus - the thing doing the measuring why should things be different between micro level and macro level things isn't this just an arbitrary measurement of size

Question 29

What role, if any, does universality have with regard to Schrödinger’s equation and the measurement problem?

Answer 29

That while other theories had seemed to be universal Schrodinger's equation only seems to apply at the micro and now Newton's doesn't seem to work at the micro level

Question 30

What is the main difference between collapse interpretations and noncollapse interpretations of quantum theory?

Answer 30

In collapse interpretations - there is no answer as to where the electron is before measurement. Those attributes do not exist prior to measurement In non-collapse interpretations - there is no collapse and quantum entities do in fact have these things measurable prior to measurement

Question 31

types of collapse interpretations shortcomings

Answer 31

types of collapse mild measurement dependent theories says that wave functions can only occur at the micro/quantum level - measurement problem moderate - can occur at macro level but unlikely since it would have certainly been measured by then - measurement problem radical - only a human consciousness counts as measurement - even more strange that human consciousness would be only measurement

Question 32

``` What is the Copenhagen or standard interpretation? What are its core tenets and its nontrivial differences among its proponents? Why does it strike many as unusual or counterintuitive? ```

Answer 32

Copenhagen = collapse interpretations core tenets - does not have some properties prior to measurement wave function and its collapse via measurement disagree over what counts as measurement

Question 33

What are the main characteristics of Einstein’s realistic interpretation of quantum theory? What are its shortcomings or oddities?

Answer 33

shortcoming - proven wrong believed there was no wave function that quantum entities have definite aspects they just haven't been measured yet no collapse

Question 34

What are the main characteristics of Bohm’s realistic interpretation of quantum theory? What are its shortcomings or oddities?

Answer 34

Quantum entities have a definite position but are guided by a "guide wave" - makes same predictions as normal quantum theory but fit worldview (did I hear Tycho) but his guidance waves require faster than light influences

Question 35

Compare and contrast Einstein’s and | Bohm’s interpretations.

Answer 35

both do not involve a wave function bohm's involves ftl influences Einstein's does not Bohm has not been disproven Einsteins has

Question 36

What is the many-worlds interpretation? | What are its shortcomings or oddities?

Answer 36

the wave function does not collapse every time there is a superposition there is a new reality - this is a very high number of simultaneous realities and is at least hard to comprehend and there is little to suggest it is correct

Question 37

What does evolution mean in the | broadest sense?

Answer 37

change in a population over time

Question 38

What does evolution by means of natural selection mean, according to Darwin, Wallace, and contemporary biology?

Answer 38

because of heritable variations and differential fitness just like in artificial selection where people can choose for traits nature can also chose what traits are best but in this case depending on who survives and passes on their genes

Question 39

What are heritable variations?

Answer 39

there are differences between members of a population and those differences can be passed down

Question 40

What is differential fitness? What does it have to do with the struggle for survival or struggle for existence?

Answer 40

not all members of the population are equally suited to survive and pass down their traits

Question 41

What is artificial selection? Why does it | matter for evolutionary theory?

Answer 41

artificial selection is the idea that humans select for desirable traits

Question 42

How has evolutionary theory developed | since Darwin and Wallace?

Answer 42

discovering that there are "units" of heredity known as genes discovered by Mendel's experiments the discovery of the structure of DNA mechanism by which DNA codes for proteins being able to determine an organisms genetic code

Question 43

How do biologists understand biological | evolution today?

Answer 43

changes in allele frequencies in a population over time

Question 44

What is an allele?

Answer 44

a variant of a particular gene

Question 45

What is gene flow (or migration)? What | role does it play in evolutionary theory?

Answer 45

changes due to breeding with different populations such as due to immigration between isolated communities it is one of the ways evolution can occur

Question 46

What is genetic mutation? What role | does it play in evolutionary theory?

Answer 46

genetic mutation is a change in gene due to external factors - chemicals, radiation, others, and errors. It is one of the ways evolution can occur

Question 47

What is genetic drift? What role does it | play in evolutionary theory?

Answer 47

changes in the frequency just due to random chance it is one of the ways evolution can occur

Question 48

What are the two noteworthy subtypes | of genetic drift?

Answer 48

the bottle neck and the founder effect bottle neck - a large portion of the population is randomly killed off leaving a smaller group that due to random chance increases and allele or just gives it a small sample size which results in drift (not due to it surviving better) founder - a small group with an unusual high frequency of an allele founds a new population / colony

Question 49

``` What is one of the most fundamental misconceptions about evolutionary theory? What does such a misconception fail to understand with regard to older philosophical/ conceptual facts about the nature of living things? ```

Answer 49

Why haven't other organisms evolved to be smart - because smart isn't necessarily the best also species do not evolve to survive species survive because they had traits which leads to them evolving (because those who didn't died)

Question 50

What are the differences and similarities between Darwin’s development of his views on evolution and the development of Wallace’s views on evolution?

Answer 50

Darwin went on the HMS Beagle saw a lot of species saw the variation between species and the "struggle for existence" (from Malthus on the human population) and came to conclusion Wallace also went on voyages and came to similar conclusions (he got idea of struggle during a fever)

Question 51

What is the significance of Darwin’s Origins? Be sure to consider its genesis, its reception, and its lasting influence.

Answer 51

Aimed for a wide audience excellent explanation building on ideas slowly - from artificial to natural selection to evolution

Question 52

What is the significance of Darwin’s Origins? Be sure to consider its genesis, its reception, and its lasting influence.

Answer 52

Aimed for a wide audience excellent explanation building on ideas slowly - from artificial to natural variation to the struggle for existence to evolution with lots of proof and evidence following reception - sold very well, that evolution occurred was accepted, how it occurred was rejected many preferred the Lamarkian view (traits gained over life are passed on)

Question 53

What is the naturalist response to | western religions’ view of creation?

Answer 53

that if one fully accepts natural selection then it leaves no room for God acting in the evolutionary process and there is no reason to believe that humans are special

Question 54

What is process philosophy? Process | theology?

Answer 54

process philosophy - processes are more fundamental than objects processes are the fundamental constant of reality and objects are only arising out of the processes (rather than processes being the result of objects) - originally by Whitehead Process theology - God as a apart of the world more specifically as apart of the process (or maybe its sum). God is also important in keeping the universe in balance between chaos and order - originally de Chardin

Question 55

What is John Haught’s response to | science, especially to Darwin’s theory?

Answer 55

That a belief in a God who plays a role in the evolutionary process is completely compatible with evolution as a world that was just created and then didn't change would be "boring" and this is more in scope with the greater glory of God

Question 56

What is the problem of the criterion?

Answer 56

When two sides disagree about what criteria to decide a matter based on.

Question 57

What is meant by morality being objectively real? How does taste or color perception differ?

Answer 57

That it is a part of reality and that by disagreeing with this reality (unlike taste which is subjective) we can be very upset

Question 58

How does evolution challenge the | objective reality of morality?

Answer 58

It demonstrates that this sense of objectivity is a byproduct of evolution

Question 59

Does evolution eliminate all senses of the reality of morality (as well as color perception)? Why or why not?

Answer 59

Some would argue that this morality is very real (because we are real) but that it is also subjective - just like color it is dependent on who we are as a species.

Question 60

What is descriptive ethics? What is | normative ethics?

Answer 60

normative ethics - what is right and what is wrong | descriptive ethics - the study of what people believe to be right or wrong

Question 61

What is the naturalistic fallacy? Does it | apply to all rational inferences? Explain.

Answer 61

Naturalistic fallacy - is does not equal ought - just because something IS a way does not mean that that is the way it OUGHT to be

Question 62

How could evolutionary considerations affect ethical inquiry or moral judgments?

Answer 62

that evolution shows that our moral sentiments are not objective and therefore it calls into question whether we can make moral judgements for sure at all

Question 63

What is the problem of altruism, from an | evolutionary perspective?

Answer 63

why has altruism occurred if evolution is driven by one's own survival

Question 64

What is kin altruism?

Answer 64

kin altruism is when you are altruistic towards family members

Question 65

What is reciprocal altruism?

Answer 65

being altruistic towards a person and expecting a return

Question 66

What is the classical prisoner dilemma?

Answer 66

one round of the prisoners dilemma 10,10 13,0 or 3,3

Question 67

What is the iterative prisoner dilemma?

Answer 67

when many rounds are performed

Question 68

What are the best strategies for taking | up the iterative prisoner’s dilemma?

Answer 68

tit for tat - always be trusting at first but if trust is broken retaliate

Question 69

What is the ultimatum game?

Answer 69

$10 propose how to switch it between us 9-1 through 1-9 the other person has the right to refuse and if refused both get nothing

Question 70

How do people who actually have | played the ultimate game behave?

Answer 70

people usually reject below 30% and usually split somewhat evenly

Question 71

What is the trust game?

Answer 71

give you some of my money whatever I give you is trippled then you can split it how you will - requires trust to work well

Question 72

How do people who actually have | played the trust game behave?

Answer 72

most people trust and most people are trustworthy

Question 73

What effect does oxytocin have on | individuals playing the trust game?

Answer 73

giving people oxytocin substantially increases trust

Question 74

What are further consequences of Darwin’s theory for how we think about our place in the universe?

Answer 74

That we apart of a greater whole one of many interrelated species

Question 75

What is the organism metaphor of the universe? Which worldview does it apply to and why?

Answer 75

In the Aristotelian worldview the universe was viewed as an organism where organs have functions that achieve a goal

Question 76

What is the machine metaphor of the universe? Which worldview does it apply to and why?

Answer 76

In the Newtonian view the parts of the universe interact much like a machine with the various parts interacting - mechanical and mechanistic clear outcomes - interactions only through connections

Question 77

``` How great of a threat to the mechanistic worldview is the rejection of absolute space and absolute time in favor of the relativity of spacetime (according to DeWitt at least)? Why? ```

Answer 77

Dewitt argues it is a peripheral belief as one can still view the universe as interacting in a mechanistic way with its various parts

Question 78

``` How great of a threat to the mechanistic worldview is the rejection of locality in favor of nonlocality in light of quantum mechanics (according to DeWitt at least)? Why? ```

Answer 78

Dewitt argues that this is a more significant difference as action at a distance influences have been shown even in large objects at significant distances when previously we had thought action could not occur at distance and this can't be confined to the quantum level

Question 79

How great of a threat is evolutionary theory to the very human and very common view that humans are special in this universe? Why?

Answer 79

Require that we give up the view that humans are special - there is nothing to suggest that we are at the apex of life

Question 80

What are the implications of evolutionary theory for traditional conceptions of human life, such as religion and ethics?

Answer 80

For religion and ethics it poses a challenge but not necessarily an insurmountable one by suggesting that God may not play the role in creation as it was thought. For ethics it suggests a lack of objectivity of ethics which may cause the questioning of ethical principles at all.

Question 81

What do metaphors do for worldviews | and understanding?

Answer 81

a convenient and simple way of summarizing the way the universe works

Question 82

What is our current situation with regard to a unifying worldview for our current science?

Answer 82

There is no single metaphor that is capable of describing our understanding of the world - possibly for good?

Question 83

What further implications are there for our understanding of our world and our place within it, with or without metaphor?

Answer 83

That new worldviews will likely emerge