Final Exam Flashcards

Question 1

Q

Mind as Computer:

What is the computer metaphor at the heart of cognitive psychology?

Answer

A

The mind as a computer - info comes in, and something comes out. People process info and a behavior results. Helps guide research questions (ex. do we do things serially?)

Question 2

Q

History of Field:

What was Donald Broadbent’s role?

Answer

A

Father of cognitive psychology

Question 3

Q

History of Field:

What area did John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner focus on?

Answer

A

-Behaviorism: focus on stimulus and behavior

Question 4

Q

History Field:

What was Max Wertheimer’s contribution?

Answer

A

Gestalt psychology: study of how brain organizes the world (ex. we see patterns like groupings of color)

Question 5

Q

History of Field:

Who was Edward Titchner and what was his contribution?

Answer

A

Student of Wundt. Brought Structuralism to the United States

Question 6

Q

History of Field:

Describe the school of thought Wilhelm Wundt was associated with.

Answer

A

Structuralism - understanding components/structure of consciousness

Question 7

Q

Founders:

Describe the area of psychology Ernst Weber and Gustav Fechner focused on

Answer

A

Psychophysics - focus on the relationship between external stimuli and internal experience

Question 8

Q

Information Processing Approach:

How is Sternberg’s study an example of the information-processing approach?

Answer

A

response time is a clue as to how the brain retrieves something

Question 9

Q

Sensation:

What are the function of the pupil and iris?

Answer

A

Pupil: allows light to pass into eye

- Iris: muscle: adjusts pupil depending on available light

Question 10

Q

Sensation:

What is the function of the cornea?

Answer

A

Provide some protection against damage

Question 11

Q

Sensation:

What is the function of the lens?

Answer

A

Bend light

- Adjusts to accommodate distance

Question 12

Q

Sensation:

What is the function of the retina and the fovea?

Answer

A

Retina: location of rods and cones

- Fovea: point of central focus, full of cones, small part of overall retina

Question 13

Q

Sensation:

What is the optic nerve?

Answer

A

where axons of cells bind together
blind spot in this area
blind spot of one eye filled in by the other eye

Question 14

Q

Sensation:

What is the difference between rods and cones?

Answer

A

rods: respond to any light, don’t need much light; more active at night, predominantly in periphery, less detail
cones: respond to preferred wavelengths, need lots of light, more active during the day

Question 15

Q

Sensation:

What are after effects? What color vision theory is this?

Answer

A

The result of tiring out the cones that respond to a certain color which then allows you to see the opposite color. Colors seen as paired opposites: red & green, yellow & blue, black & white. This is the Opponent Process Theory of color vision

Question 16

Q

Sensation:

Describe the ventral stream

Answer

A

“what” stream
temporal lobe
processes object’s properties
damage produces visual agnosia (difficulty recognizing objects)

Question 17

Q

Sensation:

Describe the dorsal stream

Answer

A

“where” stream
parietal lobe
processes spatial relationships
damage can produce apraxia (difficulty with some movements)

Question 18

Q

Bottom-Up & Top-Down:

What is the difference between bottom-up and top-down processing?

Answer

A

Bottom-up: processing stimuli visually, building up into recognition
Top-down: start with knowledge and expectations
Perception is both bottom-up and top-down

Question 19

Q

Perception:

What did the Hubel and Wiesel study find?

Answer

A

cells in visual cortex have more specific preferences than ganglions
individual cells have preferred angle (fire more for certain angles and less for others)
cells in hyper columns have similar preferences

Question 20

Q

Visual Illusions:

What is Carey and Diamond’s (1977) Encoding Switch Hypothesis?

Answer

A

When first born, humans process faces featurally. Transition to holistic processing around age 10. Young children process featurally, adults process holisitically.

Question 21

Q

Visual Illusions:

What’s the difference between holistic (configural) and featural face

Answer

A

Featurally: process individual features
Holisitic: process as a whole

Question 22

Q

Visual Illusions:

What are Gestalt Grouping laws?

Answer

A

Ways of grouping that help us organize and draw meaning from objects; focus on the whole is the sum of its parts

Question 23

Q

Visual Illusions:

Name and briefly explain the Gestalt grouping laws

Answer

A

Proximity - closeness between objects
Similarity - see structure
Continuation - if view something partially blocked, it seems to continue
Closure - default assumption that objects are closed, have edges, take up area
Good figure - default assumption of regular shapes

Question 24

Q

Cross-Modal Interactions:

Explain the ball illusion

Answer

A

Typically the clicking noise in the 2nd trial makes it more likely for people to report that the balls bounce off one another

Question 25

Q

Cross-Modal Interactions:

Explain the McGurk effect

Answer

A

Lips saying “ga,” hearing “ba,” so perception is neither and makes something in between like “da”

Question 26

Q

Cross-Modal Interactions:

Explain Hidaka and Shimoda’s first experiment

Answer

A

Investigated does color of comparison stimulus affect how sweet it’s judged compared to standard? Yes.
Comparison stim. was colored, adaptation stim and standard were clear. Sugar content of stan. and comp. were the same, adaptation stim slightly higher. W/out adaptation condition - comparison reported to be sweeter than standard. W/ adaptation - comparison reported to be less sweet

Question 27

Q

Cross-Modal Interactions:

Explain Hidaka and Shimoda’s second experiment

Answer

A

Does color influence adaptation process? NO.
W/out adaptation - JND need less to notice difference; PSE need less sugar.
W/ adaptation - JND need more, PSE need more

Question 28

Q

Models of Attention:

Describe the Early Selection Model. Who proposed this model?

Answer

A

attention selects before identification

- encoding (followed by gate) then identification, response selection, response execution

Question 29

Q

Models of Attention:

Describe the Late Selection Model. What researchers proposed it?

Answer

A

Deutsch and Deutsch
attention selects after identification
encoding, identification, (gate), response selection, response execution

Question 30

Q

Models of Attention:

Describe the Attenuation Theory. Who proposed it?

Answer

A

proposed by Treisman
Attention does select early but the filter isn’t strong
what you inhibit can come through in a weakened state
ex. in conversation with someone but hear name called far away

Question 31

Q

Models of Attention:

Describe the Load Theory. Who proposed it?

Answer

A

Lavie
cognitive load: how much stuff you’re dealing with
default is to process everything
low load: process everything; late selection
high load: selective (early selection)

Question 32

Q

Endogenous & Exogenous Attention:

How does attention shift in regards to exogenous attention?

Answer

A

exogenous attention: reflexive attention shift; something in environment
overt: eyes’ gaze shift
covert: eyes/head stay fixed

Question 33

Q

Endogenous & Exogenous Attention:

How does attention shift in regards to endogenous attention?

Answer

A

voluntary attention shift
choose to focus attention
overt: eyes and head shift
covert: eyes fixed

Question 34

Q

Controlled and Automatic Processing:

What is the difference between controlled and automatic processing?

Answer

A

Automatic processing: no attention required

- Controlled processing: requires executive functions and control

Question 35

Q

Controlled and Automatic Processing:

How did the Payne study contrast controlled and automatic processing?

Answer

A

looked at how implicit racial biases contribute to automatic/controlled processes
subjects had to identify object as gun or tool; target object preceded by face of white or black male flashed
exp. 1 no time limit - RT faster when pairing face of black male with gun, result low error rate, time to override automatic processing with controlled processing
exp 2: time limit, higher error rate, automatic processing (no time to override), more willing to respond w/ automatic processing bc of time limit

Question 36

Q

Controlled and Automatic Processing:

How is the Stroop Task an example of the difference between controlled and automatic processing?

Answer

A

SAY color of font, NOT the word which is name of a color
difficult task bc reading is automatic for simple words
have to control impulse to read the word and instead read ink color

Question 37

Q

Selective and Divided Attention:

Is attention capable of being divided (true multi-tasking)?

Answer

A

Attention shifts between multiple tasks

- however can perform two tasks at the same type if they use separate functions and have no interference

Question 38

Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

What is inattentional blindness?

Answer

A

people paying attention to certain stimuli ignore/don’t see other stimuli

Question 39

Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

What is change blindness?

Answer

A

don’t see a change, especially if quick

Question 40

Q

Attention Failures and Deficits:

Which type of attention is impacted by ADD or ADHD?

Answer

A

selective attention

- also less attentional control

Question 41

Q

Attention Applications:

What did Strayer et al’s study reveal about cell phone conversations while driving?

Answer

A

talking on phone pulls attention from road
exp. 1: people on phone took longer to press brake, longer to let go of it, longer to reach min. speed, also increased following distance
exp 2: people on phone had less memory of billboards passed while driving
exp: 4 took longer to identify words if on cell phone

Question 42

Q

Memory Models & Stages:

Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (Multi-Store Memory)

Answer

A

SENSORY MEMORY: hangs onto info breifly to determine if relevant, if yes then pay ATTENTION and transfer to short-term
SHORT-TERM (info may get TRANSFERred into long-term)
LONG-TERM: retrieval processes an bring this info back into STM to enable response output

Question 43

Q

Memory Models & Stages:

What is the capacity and duration of short-term memory?

Answer

A

duration: less than 30 sec

- capacity: 7 plus or minus 2 items

Question 44

Q

Memory Models & Stages:

What is the duration and capacity of long-term memory?

Answer

A

duration: potentially lifelong

- capacity: potentially infinite

Question 45

Q

Memory Models & Stages:

Describe the Baddeley & Hitch Model

Answer

A

2 stores and 1 central executive in between them
visuospatial sketchpad: focuses on spatial and visual info
phonological loop: focuses on sound info
central executive: determines what gets put into working memory, which store gets the info, can integrate info involving both sound and visual/spatial, manipulation

Question 46

Q

Memory Types and Processes:

What are declarative memories? What are the types of declarative memories?

Answer

A

declarative/explicit: can consciously report them, can freely retrieve
episodic: memories of things that happened to you
semantic: memories of knowledge and info

Question 47

Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What are nondeclarative memories? What type of memory is nondeclarative?

Answer

A

nondeclarative/implicit: don’t have ready for conscious retrieval
procedural: memories of skills

Question 48

Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What is encoding?

Answer

A

creating a memory

- important structures involved are hippocampus and prefrontal cortex

Question 49

Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What is consolidation?

Answer

A

strengthening memories

- memories stored throughout brain

Question 50

Q

Memory Types & Processes:

Who was H.M? What abilities were affected and what were intact?

Answer

A

suffered head injury from bike, had severe seizures originating near hippocampus
part of hippocampus removed
short-term memory intact
long-term memories from before surgery intact (they aren’t stored in hippocampus)
intact non-declarative
couldn’t make new episodic memories

Question 51

Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What is forgetting?

Answer

A

no longer able to recall a memory which had been previously encoded

Question 52

Q

Memory Types & Processes:

What is the difference between proactive and retroactive interference?

Answer

A

proactive: old info interfering with storing new info; forward in time
retroactive: backward in time; new info interfering with recalling old info

Question 53

Q

Memory Errors:

Describe Loftus and Palmer’s experiment

Answer

A

car crash judgments
content of verb presented in question influenced speed estimates (“smashed” elicited higher speed estimates)
exp. 2 false memories of broken glass more likely to be formed if verb smashed was used

Question 54

Q

Memory Errors:

What effect does misattribution have on memory?

Answer

A

attribute info to wrong source

Question 55

Q

Memory Errors:

What effect do inferences have on memory? What did Sulin and Dooling find regarding this?

Answer

A

inferences drawn when experiencing the event
Sulin and Dooling: paragraph about a girl, one group had paragraph with name Helen Keller, subjects formed false memory that paragraph contained the words “deaf” and “blind”

Question 56

Q

Memory Errors:

What effect does suggestion have on memory?

Answer

A

info presented after experience can impact how it’s remembered

Question 57

Q

Memory Applications:

What factors influence eyewitness testimony?

Answer

A

amount of time that has passed since event occurred
exposure to information after the event may alter memory
cross-race identification
leading questions that suggest a certain answer

Question 58

Q

Memory Applications:

Describe the problems with the eyewitness account in the Lockerbie bombing case

Answer

A

passenger plane bombed over Scotland, police recovered suitcase which had pajamas
9 months passed between the event and when shopkeeper was questioned
shopkeeper’s details were conflicting/inconsistent in different interviews
he had seen the suspect’s face on poster, could have changed his memory
cross-racial identification can be a factor
possible miscarriage of justice with this case

Question 59

Q

Memory Applications:

Describe the Fells Acres Daycare case

Answer

A

arrest and conviction of man, sister and mother
conviction based on testimony of children
child reported 3 months late that he had been inappropriately touched (he had wet his pants and been changed)
issues with child testimonies:
amount of time
suggestibility
social influences
repeated questions
use of dolls
understandability of questions

Question 60

Q

Well- and Ill-Defined Problems:

What is a problem? What are its 3 components?

Answer

A

problem: a situation without an immediately apparent standard or routine way of reaching a goal
3 components:
1. ) goal state (what you’re working towards)
2. ) initial state (info you have at start of problem)
3. ) operators (action you can take to move from initial to goal state)

Question 61

Q

Well- and Ill-Defined Problems:

What is the difference between a well-defined and an ill-defined problem?

Answer

A

well-defined: all 3 components are known

- ill-defined: at least one component is undefined/not known; possibly more difficult to solve

Question 62

Q

Well- and Ill-Defined Problems:

What role does the prefrontal cortex play in solving well- vs. ill-defined problems, according to Goel?

Answer

A

location where the problem mainly occurs
hemisphere difference in how approach the problem:
left hem. damage: impairs well-defined problem solving
right hem. damage: impairs ill-defined problem solving

Question 63

Q

Well- and Ill-Defined Problems:

What is a problem space? How is it constructed? Describe the tic-tac-toe example

Answer

A

problem space: visualizing the solving of a problem
depict stages of a solved problem or turns in a game as a tree
limited by STM (not enough memory for all possible moves)
tic-tac-toe: ex. first move of X has 9 choices (branches), second move (next level) is O and has 8 choices

Question 64

Q

Problem-Solving Strategies and Heuristics:

What is an algorithm? What is a heuristic? What are the advantages/disadvantages of them?

Answer

A

algorithm: set of procedures that you follow to solve a problem (ex. long division, recipe)
advantage of algorithm is if you follow it exactly you won’t make a mistake
heuristic: short-cut for how to do something; help you get to solution more quickly
advantage of heuristic is it’s quick if you don’t need an exact answer

Answer 65

A

provides shortcut, gets you kind of closer to the answer

Answer 66

A

pick next move to make it look like you’re getting closer to the solution/goal state
sometimes looks like you’re moving closer but you may be moving further away from the solution
Rubik’s cube problem utilizes this heuristic
Hobbits and orcs problem: people have difficulty making a necessary backward move bc it looks like it’s getting them further away from the solution

Answer 67

A

breaking a big problem down into smaller problems
Tower of Hanoi - focus on getting the next ring in goal state
efficient to deal with large problems
first choice may be significant for next moves but likely don’t realize it

Answer 68

A

functional fixedness: fixated on object’s typical use and cannot see how to use it differently in nontraditional fashion
ex. Two String Problem - have to hold two strings but they aren’t long enough, have to use pliers to make a pendulum
ex. Candle on the Wall - have to mount a candle onto the wall and only have the candle and a box of tacks to do so

Answer 69

A

explore how child street vendors did math on the streets
informal task: researchers asked prices on the street in “natural” environment
formal task: formal test of mathematical procedures, operation problems, word problems
performance overall on formal task wasn’t as good as informal; however did better with word problems then the straight up math problems
mistakes: swapped order of operations, incorrect operator, didn’t use operator at all

Answer 70

A

“if then” statement that tells us something about the world
antecedent = “if”
consequent = “then”
only tells us what will happen if antecedent occurs, don’t know what happens if antecedent doesn’t occur

Answer 71

A

modus ponens: told “if” is true, conclude that “then” is true (ex. told he did clean up his toys (“if”), conclude that he got a cookie)
denial of antecedent: told “if” is false, conclude “then” is false; invalid conclusion
affirmation of the consequent: told “then” is true, conclude if is true, but really an invalid conclusion
modus tollens: told “then” is false, conclude “if” is fal

Answer 72

A

4 cards, one side number, one side letter
“if card has D on one side, then it has a 3 on the other side”
should pick D and 7
mistake: chose 3 (affirmation of consequent) or D (modus ponens)
also task with squiggle cards

Answer 73

A

modified tasks tap into existing schemas so easier to reason with (relevance to real world experiences)
ex. “if a person is drinking beer, then they are over 21”
ex. “if an envelope is sealed, then it has a 20 cent stamp”
ex. “if entering the country, then must have cholera vaccine”

Answer 74

A

tend to focus on whether it’s true in the real world, rather than validity
some things might be true IRL but invalid
some things may be false IRL but valid

Answer 75

A

syllogism: 3 statement set
first two statements are premises
third statement is a conclusion
goal to evaluate if 3rd statement is valid
if involves categories of items, then can assess validity using venn diagrams

Answer 76

A

simple rule: one feature
conjunctive rule: “and” rule, 2 features, each from a diff dimension
disjunctive rule: “or” rule, only need one of 2 parts to be a yes
negative rule: “not” rule, pick one feature
relational rule: ex. number of shapes matches number of borders

Answer 77

A

simple rule is easiest
conjunctive is easier than disjunctive
strategies:
successive scanning: go from yes card and change one feature
focus gambling: keep only one feature from something you already know

Answer 78

A

people can be rational in certain circumstances with low cognitive load (and irrational when high cog. load)
“bounded rationality” - we can be rational to the extent that our cognitive limitations allow
these limitations include attention, working memory, executive functions

Answer 79

A

one group of subjects choose between A and B
options were mathematically almost the same except A is absolute/sure while B is risky
another group chooses between C and D
mathematically same as A and B but framed in terms of lives lost
when framed in terms of gains - people pick sure thing
when framed in terms of losses - people pick risky choice
emotion might play a role

Answer 80

A

failure to combine decisions
2 sets of 2 options
one option sure gain w/ risk, other option sure loss w/ risk
should be thinking about combinations
people usually treat the sets as separate and choose sure gain then choose loss; not the best outcome
problem 4 tells to subjects to think about them together but still treat them as separate

Answer 81

A

failure to account for contingencies
problem 5: sure gain or risky gain - people choose sure gain
problem 6: 25% likelihood of reaching stage to choose C or D - so really no longer a sure thing
problem 7: choose between options having already advanced
for prob. 6 and 7 people still prefer guaranteed wins but don’t take into account the low probability of that win

Answer 82

A

failure to account for similarity in outcomes
problem 8: lost $10 bill, will you still buy $10 ticket; people do
problem 9: lost ticket, will you buy $10 ticket; people don’t
lose same amount of money either way
difference in that in problem 8 the $10 hasn’t been assigned to anything yet

Answer 83

A

$5 savings is dependent on proportion of cost
calculator $15 regularly, $10 on sale
or $125, regular, $120 on sale
people willing to drive 20 minutes to buy the $10 one, they don’t treat $5 as $5

Answer 84

A

intentionally misrepresent someone’s argument to make it easier to attack

Answer 85

A

if we allow this to happen, them this other thing will happen, and other thing will happen

Answer 86

A

attack on opponent is based on personal characteristics rather than their argument

Answer 87

A

events occur in “runs,” or that something is due bc it’s been a while, but really events are statistically independent

Answer 88

A

popularity is taken as a measure to indicate if something is good

Answer 89

A

presenting a situation as if there is no middle ground or “gray area”

Answer 90

A

trusting an authority figure on a topic of which you know little about

Answer 91

A

if it’s natural it’s assumed it is good

Answer 92

A

using personal stories rather than actual scientific evidence, or giving equal weight to personal stories and evidence

Answer 93

A

using emotion to win an argument rather than actual logic or reason

Answer 94

A

pick bits of data that support point and ignore parts that don’t support it

Answer 95

A

allows you to figure out which of two options is mathematically better
people are motivated to win and may choose the higher prob. of winning
gains: prob. of winning x amount to be won
loss and gains: (prob. winning x amount to win) - (prob. lose x amount to lose)

Answer 96

A

given description of fictional person and given statistic
4 diff conditions:
incongruent: heuristic and probability lead to different choices
congruent (control): heuristic and probability lead to same choice ‘
neutral (control): cannot use heuristics, must be probability only
heuristic (control): cannot use probability, must use heuristic only
results: high accuracy for control conditions and in incongruent condition longer response time when used base-rate

Answer 97

A

assume something happens more often if we can retrieve many memories of that something happening
we assume the statistical probability is higher than it actually is
ex. media replaying events

Answer 98

A

examined how people use base-rate info to make medical judgments
fictional disease and given statements
90% chance person w/ disease will be recorded positive
if no disease 1% chance for false positive
roughly 1% of pop has disease
subjects median response was 85% chance of having disease
really should be about 50%
confidence ratings very high, even when just guessing without all the given info
overall people weren’t using base-rate info - instead maybe used their memory to try to recall instances
Bayes’ theorem takes into account all statistical probabilities of having the disease, false pos., etc.

Answer 99

A

rules, the structure that governs language

Answer 100

A

organization of a sentence

Answer 101

A

the meaning of a sentence

Answer 102

A

the sounds of a language

Answer 103

A

the letters or script of a language

Answer 104

A

pregnant women read to unborn child
babies could chose to hear same story read by mother or a different story (chose based on rate of sucking pacifier)
indicates babies knew difference between one story and another - so language learning even in babies

Answer 105

A

certain skills have to be learned at a certain point in time or they cannot be learned at all
critical period for language development is puberty
evidence: Genie - never taught language and at 13yrs could learn words but couldn’t put them together to form a sentence

Answer 106

A

babies able to learn statistical patterns of sounds (esp. transitional probabilities which are likelihood of a particular sound following another sound)
exposed to made up language (“bidaku, padoti, golabu, tupiro)”
chose between hearing word or non-word: preferred nonword
second exp chose between word and part-word: showed they understood where one word ends and next begins

Answer 107

A

duality of patterning: units of meaning (words) are made up of units which are meaningless on their own (letters)
arbitrary: words are arbitrary and are assigned meaning
generative capacity: we can create new words whenever we want to
recursion: take a sentence/thought & embed into another sentence (“nesting” ideas)

Answer 108

A

Koko the gorilla: learned sign language but didn’t make grammatically correct sentences
Kanzi the bonobo: understood what symbols meant
show the animals can understand some human lang (at toddler level) but can’t further

Answer 109

A

how we’re able to understand language

- know what spoken words mean and what words on a page mean

Answer 110

A

left hem, temporal lobe
area involved in lang comprehension
Wernicke’s aphasia: “word salad” in which words come out but lack meaning, may also have difficulty understanding questions

Answer 111

A

measured how long eyes stayed on certain words
longer on meaningful, unfamiliar, and first words
also longer for words that take longer to say/read
we don’t look at every single word but most of them, we may jump ahead but may need to backtrack
how eye processes words while reading

Answer 112

A

subjects focused on objects on computer screen and given sentence (request)
where were people’s eyes looking when asked for “beaker” : equally likely to be looking at beaker or beetle
start trying to find out what it means as we’re hearing it

Answer 113

A

Aaronson and Scarborough: looked at how long people spend in between words; longer gaps between phrase boundaries
Graf and Torrey: gave subjects sentences one line at and then tested comprehension; better comprehension when setnences broken up by phrase boundaries
we process in terms of individual phrases not word by word

Answer 114

A

subjects read sentences and had to choose appropriate verb; either ambiguous sentence or unambiguous
slower response time for unambiguous inappropriate verb, fastest for ambiguous appro.
we use semantics to figure out what should come next w/ help of knowledge of syntax
we work w/ syntax and semantics at the same time

Answer 115

A

frontal lobe, left hem
language production
Broca’s aphasia: difficulty speaking, writing, no problem with meaning but trouble getting words out

Answer 116

A

Conceptualization: figure out meaning you want to convey

Formulation: use syntactical structure and pull in words to help convey the meaning
Articulation: speech planning, control mouth and breath for words to come out

Answer 117

A

functional level

- word that you know but cannot retrieve it from memory when you need it

Answer 118

A

functional level

- instead of saying word we want we say a diff word that is related in meaning

Answer 119

A

functional level

- 2 diff words that might be appropriate in that spot in sentence but come out together/blended instead of picking one

Answer 120

A

positional level
morpheme (meaning unit) of the word swaps but ending stays same
ex. I sampled some randomly- “randomed some samply”

Answer 121

A

positional level
2 words swap location-wise in sentence
usually same parts of speech (ex. noun and noun)

Answer 122

A

positional level

- 2 diff phrases get mixed together

Answer 123

A

sound level
sound missing, should be there but isn’t
ex. “black” turns into “back”

Answer 124

A

sound level
affffix = end word
drop final sound of word
usually the part which indicates if things are plural or past-tense

Answer 125

A

sound level

- swap beginnings of two words

Answer 126

A

sound level

- earlier sounds in sentence show up after they should done

Answer 127

A

sound level

- sound in sentence shows up earlier than it should

Answer 128

A

induced speech errors, subjects read list of word pairs starting w/ same letters (d and b) except flip order on last pair (b and d)
Exp. 1: more likely to make spoonerism if ending would be lexical (real) words in context
Exp. 2: nonlexical, no context; little diff in whether swap would be non-lexical or lexical

Answer 129

A

time to plan prepare
tend to use more complex elements in writing
we write alone

Answer 130

A

Planning: figure out message you want to communicate, more time than speech
Translation: take ideas from planning stage and put them on paper
Reviewing: read what you’ve written to spot errors and make sure message will be communicated to reader

Answer 131

A

word that is similar/same across the two lang you know

Answer 132

A

bilingual speaking to another bilingual who speaks same langs
while speaking switch to other language (for word, phrase, or rest of sentence)

Answer 133

A

disadvantage: bilingual toddlers are slower to acquire ind words
advantage: kids get to school know more words than monolingual peers and better capacity for learning language; better understand lang is symbolic; greater capacity for inhibitory control

Answer 134

A

effect of immersion on ability to inhibit first lang
subjects: 25 students abroad in Spain, 20 students on campus in classroom setting
translation recognition task: given word in English and word in Spanish, had to indicate if correct translation ve
verbal fluency task: given category and come up w/ as many examples as possible
immersed learners less distracted by distracters for translation task (not affected by lexical distracters while classroom group was); affected by semantic neighbors while classroom group wasn’t
immersed better at producing more words in Spanish for verbal fluency, classroom better with English words
data consistent w/ idea that immersed group was inhibiting English while in Spain

Answer 135

A

dyslexia: deficit in reading comprehension or speed

- dysgraphia: difficulty writing

Answer 136

A

memory rep: declarative
performance: slow, inaccurate
attention demands: high

Answer 137

A

memory rep: association made stronger
performance: improving
attention demands: medium

Answer 138

A

memory rep: nondeclarative
performance: fast, accurate
attention demands: low

Answer 139

A

steepest declines in time at the beginning, then less steep afterwards
little bit of practice initially improves performance a lot, but after it takes much practice to improve
skill remains long after practice but may require a “warm-up” period

Answer 140

A

single-task was batting a simulated ball, dual task was batting while responding to a tone
secondary task was either “extraneous” (reported pitch of tone) or “skill-focused” (report direction of bat)
Exp 1: experts not affected by extraneous task but novices were; experts worse w/ skill focused task while novices better
Exp 2: more attention to secondary task led to poorer batting performance
Exp 3: pressure reduced skill task errors but performance was worse; fewer errors w/ pitch task but more errors overall with skill task

Answer 141

A

figure outlined by a few dots/lights
we see dots/lights but brain fills in details to see person
we can perceive: male/female, mental state, weight

Answer 142

A

we plan our movements so that we’re comfortable at the end of the movement
originally studied with how people grabbed dowels

Answer 143

A

group with mirror therapy had higher post test scores, better able to move their hand after therapy
however the effects did not last once therapy was stopped

Answer 144

A

people more often experienced tacticle blindness with the insect pattern tappers

Answer 145

A

perceptual memory worse

- but conceptual memory better

Answer 146

A

doublespeak statements had higher truth ratings than lies

Answer 147

A

both meanings active early on at 100ms, but at 800ms only literal is active

Answer 148

A

can happen with instrumental tunes
tune or random tone played while subjects did serial task
more interference w/ the tunes (decreased accuracy)
working memory is affected

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