Final Exam Flashcards
(179 cards)
1
Q
What is abnormal behaviour?
A
- Atypical- statistically rare.
- Socially unacceptable.
- Behaviour often causes distress to that person or to those around the person.
- Usually maladaptive in that the behaviour is harmful and non-productive.
- Often the product of distorted cognitions.
- Biological dysfunction.
2
Q
What percentage of Schizophrenia affects the population?
A
1% across the world.
3
Q
What is insight?
A
You may not know that something is wrong vs. someone who noticed they are doing abnormal behaviours like washing hands constantly. (Reaching out.)
4
Q
What is distortion?
A
Something wrong in the thinking process. (ex. for OCD, I have to go on my phone multiple times or someone will be hurt.)
5
Q
What is the demonic perspective on abnormality?
A
- Evil spirits inhabit the body.
- Exorcisms and witch hunts were common during this time.
- Not the common explanations but some religions use this approach.
6
Q
What is medical-biological perspective on abnormality?
A
- Abnormal behaviour can be diagnosed, treated, and cured.
- The cure my not necessarily take place.
- Biology may not give us the exact answer we would like.
- Not consistent.
7
Q
What is psychodynamic perspective on abnormality?
A
- Psychological disorders result from anxiety produced by unresolved conflicts outside a person’s awareness.
- We cannot measure/evaluate the unconscious.
- Does not explain psychological disorders but could possibly explain anxiety or mood disorders.
8
Q
What is humanistic perspective on abnormality?
A
- Focuses on individual uniqueness and decision making.
- Maladjustment occurs when a person’s needs are not met.
- Ex. when your safety is at risk you could become anxious.
- Ex. you don’t know when food is coming if you don’t have money so when you have access you hoard it.
9
Q
What is behavioural perspective on abnormality?
A
- Focus on observable behaviour.
- Abnormal behaviour is learned through selective reinforcement and punishment.
- Ex. interventions.
This model could help explain things like anxiety disorders or child behaviour.
-Ex. if you stay away from that person you feel good, if you stay inside and makes you feel safe then you feel good. – anxiety cause you to want to stay home.
10
Q
What is cognitive perspective on abnormality?
A
- Focus on thoughts.
- Human beings engage in both prosocial and maladjusted behaviours because of their thoughts.
11
Q
What is sociocultural perspective on abnormality?
A
- Focus on family, community and society.
- Maladjustment occurs within and because of the context of family, community and society.
- Things could cause disorders that don’t relate to family or other relationships.
- Could model things to your child ex. you don’t ride a bike because your scared you’ll fall off and now your child is scared to ride a bike too.
12
Q
What is evolutionary perspective on abnormality?
A
- Humans evolved in a specific environment.
- Maladjustments may be expressions of behaviour that would once have been normal in evolutionary history.
- Ex. historically, there was fear of spiders but now people will literally make videos of spiders biting them.
13
Q
What is the best perspective to use?
A
- Certain situations relate more too certain approaches.
- Collective approach would be best.
14
Q
True or false:
Most people do not recover from mental illness?
A
False.
15
Q
True or false:
Few people with mental illness are violent?
A
True.
16
Q
True or false:
Most people with mental illness bear their pain privately?
A
True.
17
Q
What is diagnosis?
A
- Diagnosis is a language.
- (Look at the evidence to see the best way that they can function and to feel more like themselves.)
18
Q
What does DSM stand for?
A
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM).
19
Q
What is comorbidity?
A
What disorders show up together?
20
Q
Who was the DSM published by?
A
The American Psychiatric Association.
21
Q
What is DSM-5?
A
- Contains diagnostic criteria and decision rules for each condition according to observable behaviour.
- Warns to “think organic” (rule out physical causes of symptoms first).
- 18 major categories of disorders.
- Cites the prevalence of each disorder or the percentage of the population displaying the disorder.
22
Q
Criticisms of DSM-5?
A
- Can be used wrong.
- Comorbidity- wee see people having multiple disorders so is the criteria specific enough?
- Criteria can be included from experiences but where is the science part of things?
23
Q
What must the Canadian and American Psychological Associations both state practitioners do?
A
- Recognize cultural diversity. (Don’t assume, ask.)
- Understand the role of culture and ethnicity in development.
- Help clients understand their own sociological identification.
- Understand how culture, race, gender, and sexual orientation interact to affect behaviour.
24
Q
What is anxiety?
A
A generalized feeling of fear and apprehension that may be related to a particular situation or object often accompanied by increased physiological arousal.
25
What is Generalized Anxiety Disorder?
- A person with generalized anxiety disorder feels almost continuous anxiety for six months, increased activity of the autonomic nervous system, difficulty concentrating, and fatigue.
- Difficult to treat.
- The persons focus is not just one thing, many foci.
26
What is Panic Disorder?
- Repeated, unexpected panic attacks.
- Persistent concerns about future attacks. (Fear that it will happen again so you watch your actions closely.)
- A change in personal behaviour in an attempt to avoid them.
- Could happen anywhere (ex. at a grocery store so people start ordering their groceries online.)
27
What is panic attacks?
Attacks of acute anxiety accompanied by increased autonomic nervous system arousal unrelated to a specific event.
28
What is Agoraphobia?
- Involves a marked fear and avoidance of being alone in a place from which escape may be difficult or embarrassing.
- Symptoms include: hyperventilation, extreme tension, and cognitive disorganization.
- Ex. won’t leave the house and it makes you feel better.
- Reinforces avoidance.
29
What is social phobia (Social anxiety disorder)?
- Is anxiety involving a fear of and a desire to avoid situations where one might be scrutinized by others.
- Being evaluated makes you anxious. (Positive or negative.)
30
What is a specific phobia?
- Involves irrational and persistent fear of a particular object or situation.
- Ex. blood phobia.
31
What is Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)?
- Two components:
- Obsessions: persistent, uncontrollable thoughts and irrational beliefs.
- Compulsions: compulsive rituals that interfere with daily life.
- Compulsions completed (or ritual behaviours) = reduce tension.
32
What is Catastrophic thinking?
Predicting terrible events despite low probability.
33
What is anxiety sensitivity?
A fear of anxiety-related symptoms.
34
What are mood disorders?
May be triggered by a specific event or have no identifiable cause.
35
What is Major Depression Disorder symptoms?
- Depressed mood.
- Loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities.
- Difficulties in sleeping (insomnia).
- Shift in activity level, becoming either lethargic (psychomotor retardation) or agitated.
- Poor appetite and weight loss, or increased appetite and weight gain.
36
At what age does Major Depression usually develop?
30.
37
What is the biological cause of Major Depression?
Both genetics and neurotransmitters may underlie depression.
38
What is the cognitive theory of Major Depression?
1) Negative Triad: depressed people have negative views of
Themselves
Environment
Future.
2) Negative schemas
3) Cognitive distortions
39
What is learned helplessness?
Is the behaviour of giving up or not responding exhibited by people and animals exposed to negative consequences over which the feel they have no control.
40
What is vulnerablility?
- A person’s diminished ability to deal with life events.
| - The more vulnerable the person, the less stress or anxiety is needed to initiate depression.
41
What is Bipolar Disorder?
-Was originally known as manic-depressive disorder.
-People with the disorder experience behaviour varying between two extremes:
Mania (high emotion)
Depression.
42
What is Dissociative Amnesia?
A sudden and extensive inability to recall important personal information.
43
What is Dissociative Identity Disorder?
Previous name:
multiple personality disorder.
Involves the existence within an individual of two more distinct personalities or ego states each dominant at different times.
44
What is Schizophrenia?
- Lack of reality testing.
- Disconnect with reality.
- Deterioration of social and cognitive functioning.
- Inability to meet the demands of life.
45
What does positive mean in psychology?
- Positive does not mean good.
| - Adds to someone's presentation. (Positive = additional behaviours).
46
What does negative mean in psychology?
- Negative: absent from behaviours.
| - Ex. flat affect: “I’m going to Disney land”.
47
What is a delusion?
- Incorrect beliefs
| - Ex. I am god.
48
What is a hallucination?
Compelling perceptual experiences without any actual physical stimulation.
49
What is the inappropriate affect?
Emotional response not appropriate in the circumstances.
50
What is the first sign of Schizophrenia?
- Non-specific symptoms of anxiety, mood difficulties, isolation.
- Difficulty maintaining logical thought and coherent conversation.
51
What is The Vulnerability-Stress View of Schizophrenia?
Genetic Abnormality --> Biochemical --> Physiological and psychological predisposition --> Behaviour.
-Environmental factors --> Physiological and psychological predisposition --> Behaviour.
52
What Are Personality Disorders?
People with long-standing, inflexible, maladaptive behaviours that typically cause stress and social or occupational difficulties.
53
What is Paranoid personality disorder?
-Pervasive pattern of:
Odd or eccentric behaviour.
Distrust and suspiciousness of others.
54
What is Borderline personality disorder?
-Pervasive pattern of marked:
instability in mood, identity, and impulse control, often highly self-destructive.
- Trouble with relationships**
- Ex. I am academic I am an artistic I am an athlete.
55
What is Histrionic personality disorder?
- Pattern of emotionality.
| - Attention seeking by exaggerating situations in their lives.
56
What is Narcissistic personality disorder?
- Grandiosity.
- Need for admiration.
- Lack of empathy, individuals have an exaggerated sense of self-importance.
57
What is Antisocial personality disorder?
-Disregard for and violation of t
he rights of others.
- Impulsivity.
- Self-centred.
58
What is Avoidant personality disorder?
- Social inhibition.
- Feelings of inadequacy.
- Hypersensitivity to negative evaluation.
59
What is Dependent personality disorder?
- Need to be taken care of.
- Submissiveness and clinging behaviours.
- Fears of separation.
60
How Are Violence and Mental Disorders Related?
- Most are not violent.
- Likewise, most people who commit violence do not have a mental disorder.
- However, some mental disorders are associated with a greater likelihood of committing violent acts.
61
What are more serious disorders that carry a greater risk for violence?
- Delusions.
- Manic phase of bipolar disorder.
- If not taking meds, may be potentially dangerous.
- If untreated something dangerous can happen.
62
True or False:
People with mental disorders are more likely to be a danger to themselves?
True.
63
Warning signs for suicide include?
- Depression.
- Verbal statements such as “You’d be better off without me”.
- Expressions of hopelessness and helplessness.
- Daring and risk-taking behaviour that is atypical.
- Personality changes such as withdrawal, aggression, or moodiness.
- Giving away prized possessions.
- Lack of interest in the future.
64
Steps to take to prevent suicide?
- Remember to listen.
- Tell person your concerns, show you care
- Do not act shocked or judge the person.
- Direct questions.
- Do not leave the person alone.
- Do not agree to secrecy.
- Get professional help even if the person resists.
65
What Is Psychotherapy?
- Is treatment of psychological problems through psychological techniques.
- MAKE SURE YOU’RE GIVING THE BEST THERAPY.
66
What is the placebo effect of psychotherapy?
- Because you expect that you will get better, you may see improvement .
- Not significantly but maybe to feel a bit better.
67
Effectiveness of Psychotherapy?
- Not every therapy is appropriate for every condition.
- Need to be more specific.
- Disorders are very different from each other.
68
What is the eclectic approach?
- Integrating diverse theories and techniques.
- Provide therapy based on science – research backing it.
- This is ethical.
69
Are There Common Factors Among Clients?
- Usually expect a positive outcome.
- Receive attention, which helps maintain a positive attitude.
- Must be willing to make change.
70
Negative factors off a client?
- Children, court-mandated, at risk people, adolescence may be forced/ feel forced to go to therapy.
- They may not think it is positive or beneficial.
- May not be willing to make change.
- Not everyone will respect or like you.
71
What do good therapists do?
```
-Good therapists communicate:
Interest (also conveyed by eye-contact)
understanding
respect
tact
maturity
ability to help
```
-Respect their clients’ ability to cope with troubles
make suggestions, offer encouragement, provide alternative interpretations and salient example.
- Must not engage in other relationships (e.g., sexual, business) with clients.
- May not understand what they are saying but you can diagnose it.
- Rapport - key.
72
What is brief therapy?
- An operational diagnosis is made that answers the question “Why is the client here today?”
- Could be 1-2 sessions even. (Could be longer).
- Probably not as extreme or severe.
73
How does psychodynamic therapy work?
- Assumptions:
- Becoming aware of one’s motivation helps one change.
- The causes of maladjustment are unresolved unconscious conflicts
- Gain insight through your therapy, guarder insight to unconscious and behaviour.
74
What is Psychoanalysis?
Lengthy insight therapy developed by Freud that
| aims at uncovering unconscious conflicts and uses techniques such as free association and dream analysis.
75
What are Neo-Freudian based therapies?
- Use techniques derived from Freud.
- Reject or modify parts of Freud’s theory.
- More concerned with conscious aspects of client’s functioning.
- More optimistic, emphasize needs for power, love, status (not just sex and aggression).
76
Goal of Psychoanalysis?
- Maladjustment of unresolved conflicts.
| - Is to help patients understand the unconscious motivations that direct their behaviours.
77
Techniques of Psychoanalysis?
- free association
- dream analysis
- interpretation
- resistance
- transference
- working through
78
What is free association?
- A patient is asked to report whatever comes to mind, no matter how disorganized or trivial. (Unconscious content may come out if you say whatever you are thinking.)
- You sit on a couch and lay back and talk about everything and the therapist just listens. (May not talk at all.)
79
What is dream analysis?
-People are asked to describe their dreams in detail.
80
What is interpretation?
- Involves provide a context, meaning, or cause or an idea, feeling, or set of behaviours.
- (Over time they may ask to interpret and you try to explain why you had that dream.)
81
What is resistance?
-Unwillingness to cooperate, provide information, or help in interpretation.
82
What is transference?
- The therapist become the object or patient's emotional attitudes about an important person in the patient’s life. (ex. Freud’s patient fell in love with him).
- (ex. Sopranos- Tony transfers feelings of mother to his therapist and tells her he loves her.)
- Transferring feelings.
83
What is working through?
-The cycle of interpretation, resistance, and transference occurs repeatedly during psychoanalysis.
84
Criticisms of Psychoanalysis?
- Psychoanalysis is unscientific, imprecise, and subjective.
- Elements of Freud’s theory are untestable and sexist.
- The problems addressed are difficult and the patient must be motivated.
- Very expensive in both time and cost.
- Brief psychodynamic therapy is better than no treatment but less effective than cognitive-behavioural treatment.
- Not effective for psychotic disorders
85
What Do Humanistic Therapies Emphasize?
- Development of human potential.
- Belief that human nature is basically positive.
- Stress the importance of assuming responsibility and living in the present.
86
What is Client-Centred Therapy?
- Also known as person-centred therapy.
| - Is an insight therapy that helps people evaluate the world and themselves from their own perspective.
87
Techniques of Client-Centred Therapy?
-Therapist guides clients to help them find what they feel is right for themselves
-The therapist must show:
unconditional positive regard
congruence
empathic listening.
-Tries to increase awareness and heightened self-acceptance.
-Hope to:
Think more realistically
Become more tolerant of others
Engage in more adaptive behaviours.
88
Goal of Client-Centred Therapy?
Goal: help people discover their ideal selves.
89
Positives of of Client-Centred Therapy techniques?
- Focus on the therapeutic relationship.
| - Conditions for effective therapists are related to treatment outcomes.
90
Negatives of of Client-Centred Therapy techniques?
- Core concepts are difficult to falsify.
- Not enough to bring about change.
- More effective than no treatment, but mixed results compared to other therapies.
91
What Are the Methods of Behaviour Therapy?
-Focus:
changing overt behaviour.
-Goal:
using learning principles to help people replace maladaptive behaviours with more effective ones.
- Sometimes people have problems that do not warrant an investigation into childhood experiences and the unconscious.
- Very effective for treatment for problem behaviour.
92
Operant Conditioning in Behaviour Therapy?
- Operant conditioning to establish a new behaviour.
| - Often depends on a reinforcer, an event or circumstance that increases the probability a response will occur.
93
What is token economies?
-Reward adaptive behaviour.
-People who display
appropriate behaviours receive tokens.
-Use tokens to buy or trade in for items.
94
What is extinction?
- A behaviour therapist might suggest parents stop reinforcing the crying behaviour of a child by insisting that their daughter go to bed and stay there.
- Crying will eventually stop when child stays in bed.
95
What is punishment?
- Punishment involves the presentation of an aversive stimulus.
- Punishment is imitated and can bring about generalized aggression.
96
What is a time out?
Is the removal of a person from sources of reinforcement to decrease behaviour.
97
What is counterconditioning?
- A person is taught a new, more adaptive response to a stimulus.
- Systematic desensitization.
- Aversive conditioning.
98
What is systematic desensitization?
- The client is first taught to relax.
- Create a hierarchy of fears (i.e., situations or things).
- While deeply relaxed, the client slowly moves up the hierarchy through exposure.
- With each successive experience, the client learns relaxation rather than fear as a response.
- Very effective for many anxiety disorders, like phobias, OCD, and PTSD.
99
What is averse conditioning?
- In which a noxious stimulus is paired with a stimulus that elicits an undesirable behaviour.
- In adults, aversive conditioning is often used to combat addictions such as smoking or alcoholism.
- Ex. administration of a nausea-producing drug while the client is smoking or drinking so that unpleasant associations are paired with the addictive behaviour.
100
Modelling in Behaviour Therapy?
-Modelling can be used effectively for teaching a new behaviour, helping eliminate fears, and enhancing already existing behaviour.
101
What Is Cognitive Behaviour Therapy?
-Focus on changing client behaviour by changing the person’s thoughts or perceptions.
102
What is Rational Emotive Therapy?
- Emphasizes the importance of logical, rational, thought processes.
- Albert Ellis.
- Assumed abnormal behaviour is caused by faulty and irrational thinking patterns.
- How we feel about the consequences of an event is determined by our beliefs or opinions.
103
Assumptions of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy?
- Cognitions are identifiable and measurable.
- Cognitions are key in both healthy and unhealthy psychological functioning.
- Irrational beliefs or thinking can be replaced by more rational and adaptive cognitions.
104
What is Rational Emotive Therapy?
-Irrational beliefs:
product of people’s needs to be liked, to be competent, to be loved, and to feel secure.
-Exaggerated value on needs
=
abnormal behaviour.
105
What is Beck’s Approach?
- Aaron Beck:
- Depression is caused by people’s distorted thoughts about reality.
- Lead to negative views of the world, the self, and the future.
- Goal:
- Help people develop identify and modify distorted thoughts and core long-held core beliefs.
- Most evidence for effectiveness with depression but has shown to be effective for bipolar disorders and schizophrenia.
106
What is the Third Wave of CBT?
- After behavioural (first) and cognitive (second), these therapies focus on acceptance.
- Includes Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Dialectical Behaviour Therapy.
107
CBT Evaluated Scientifically?
- More effective than no or placebo treatment.
- At least or more effective than psychodynamic and humanistic therapies.
- At least as effective as drug therapies for depression.
- In general, CBT and BT are about as effective for most problems.
108
How Does Therapy in a Group Work?
- Several people meet together with a therapist to receive treatment.
- This allows a therapist to see more clients.
- Group therapy can also be more effective than individual therapy.
- Group therapy is getting a bang for your buck.
- Allows to normalize and not be so judgmental to yourself on how views on you and others change.
-You can see change better.
Group psychology is the most beneficial.
109
Techniques of Group Therapy?
- 3 to 20 clients meet on a regular basis.
- Group members selected on the basis of what they can gain and offer to the group.
- Group members are encouraged to role play new behaviours.
- Based on a particular issue, diagnoses, or what information you can gain from that group.
- Often have homework assigned.
110
What is family therapy?
- Two or more people who are committed to each other’s well-being are treated together.
- Family therapists often attempt to change family systems, the dynamic social system of the marriage or family (focus on interactions).
- Usually 1 core issue taking place.
- Problem: family plays a role in symptoms and behaviour existing/maintaining.
111
What is a family?
A group of people who are committed to one another’s well-being, preferably for life.
112
How Do Biologically Based Therapies Create Change?
-Most biologically based therapies are used in combination with traditional forms of psychotherapy.
113
What do most biological based therapies include?
- medication
- hospitalization
- physicians
114
Drugs and the Therapeutic Process?
- Will not permanently cure.
- Are effective if key issues such as side-effects are recognized and compliance is addressed.
- Side effects may stop people from taking the drugs.
- May not see effects from 4-6 weeks.
- May even have to increase the dosage.
- In that time you do not feel very good.
- This impacts compliance. (ex. stomach awful, foggy, dizzy, still feeling down and can not get out of bed.)
115
What are Anti-anxiety Drugs?
Drugs reduce feelings of stress.
116
What is Benzodiazepines?
- GABA- 1 neurotransmitter that effects benzothiazines.
- Dampen system. Ex. slow heart.
- Make a child fall asleep.
117
Types of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)?
- Paroxetine (Paxil) .
| - Sertraline (Zoloft).
118
Types of Benzodiazepines?
- Alprazolam (Xanax).
- Chlordiazepoxide (Librium).
- Diazepam (Valium).
119
Antidepressants include three major categories of drugs?
- Tricyclics- block multiple neurotransmitters.
- Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors.
- SSRIs.
120
What do Anti-depressant Drugs do?
- Work by altering levels of brain chemicals.
- The monoamine works by breaking down monoamine oxidase which is an enzyme that destroys the monoamine neurotransmitters such as serotonin.
121
What is bipolar 2?
Not into full depression but may still have mania.
122
What is bipolar 1?
Major depression and mania.
123
About Mood Stabilizing Drugs?
- Bipolar disorder.
- Lithium carbonate- do not prescribe too kids.
-Careful monitoring required
too much drug will produce noxious side effects.
- Too little drug will have no effect.
- Anticonvulsant agents.
124
What can mood stabilizing drugs cause?
- The drugs are hard on your system.
- Too much of it can produce nausea, trembling, excessive sweating (which can cause you to lose some of the drug) can become toxic.
- If not enough, the drug will not work.
125
What are Anti-psychotic Drugs?
- Are a group of drugs commonly but not exclusively used to treat psychosis (schizophrenia).
- Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) was the first antipsychotic (much more sedating).
126
Atypical antipsychotic medications?
- Clozapine (Clozaril) .
- Olanzapine (Zyprexa).
- Risperidone (Risperdal).
127
Side effects of Anti-psychotic Drugs?
- Tardive dyskinesia.
- A central nervous system disorder.
- Characterized by involuntary, spasmodic movements of the upper body, leg jiggling and tongue protusions, facial tics and involuntary movements of the mouth and shoulder.
- More risk with older types of anti-psychotics.
128
What is psychosurgery?
- Psychosurgery is brain surgery.
- In the 1940s and 50s, a common type was the prefrontal lobotomy or removal of parts of the brain’s frontal lobes thought to alleviate symptoms of mental disorders.
- Prefrontal lobotomies made some people become unnaturally calm and completely unemotional.
- Used today as an absolute last resort with a handful of conditions.
129
What is Electroconvulsive Therapy?
- An electric current is briefly applied to the head to produce a generalized seizure (convulsion).
- Changes electrical and changes someone's mood.
130
What is Deinstitutionalization?
- Is the transitioning of treatment for mental health problems from inpatient facilities to outpatient or community-based facilities.
- The transition period from hospital to outside world is still not good.
- Some people end up homeless.
-Cant get/hold a job.
Didn’t get an education.
131
Alternative therapies?
- Irrigation of the colon.
- Aromatherapy.
- Spiritualism.
- Herbal remedies.
132
What is social cognition?
- Is the process of analyzing and interpreting events, other people, oneself, and the world in general.
- How it impacts us or other people.
133
What is attributions?
- Is the process by which a person infers other people’s motives or intentions.
- We gather information. (ex. why are they taking notes? They must care about school.)
134
Function of Attributions?
- Help predict & control environment.
- Help determine self/other thoughts, feelings, & behaviours.
- Influence expectations for future.
- Impact on own performance.
135
What is Dispositional attributions (Friz Heider)?
- Are causes for behaviour that originate within the person (personality, mood, ability, effort, wishes).
- Internal. (ex. doing well in the class because you are ‘smart’).
136
What is Situational attributions (Friz Heider)?
- Are causes for behaviour that originate in events or situations outside the individual (other people, luck, pressure, $$$, weather).
- External. (ex. the reason you're doing well is because prof is really good.)
137
3 factors taken into account when making attributions?
- Consensus.
- Consistency.
- Distinctiveness.
138
What is Consensus (High and Low)?
- Degree to which other people, if in the same situation, would behave similarly to the person being observed. (Ex. is everyone acing like the girl taking notes?).
- Consensus High- if the observer sees others acting the same way.
- Consensus Low- if others are behaving differently. (ex. sleeping, watching movies.)
139
What is consistency (High and Low)?
- Whether the person being observed behaves the same way when faced with the same set of circumstances.
- Consistency High- take the girl into another class and she still takes notes.
- Consistency Low- act differently in different classes.
140
What is Distinctiveness (High and Low)?
- The observed person acts differently in different types of situations.
- Distinctiveness High- in this class she is taking notes but at the bar she is having fun. (Different depending on context.)
- Distinctiveness Low- she is taking notes everywhere. (ex. in grocery stores, bar, etc.)
141
Errors in Attribution?
- Errors or bias can occur in making attributions about the behaviour of others.
- Mental shortcuts.
- Our brain likes to be lazy.
- We want things fast.
142
What is Self-Serving Bias?
- Feel their positive behaviours are due to their internal traits (dispositional).
- Blame their failures and shortcomings on external, situational factors (situational).
- Ex. looking at success feels like “I'm so smart”.
- Ex. looking at failure “the prof didn’t teach it well”.
143
What is Fundamental Attribution Error?
-Dual tendency for people to overestimate dispositional factors and to underestimate situational factors when searching for the cause of someone else’s behaviour.
- Ex. driving on ring and see an accident on side and you assume that the person was nooot paying attention and hit the car.
- Don’t give benefit of the doubt.
- Could be due to ice or got cut off.
- You don’t know.
144
What is Actor-observer Effect?
- We are looking at a socially undesirable behavior.
- When doing something poorly you will look at the situation.
- Ex. cheating in class, “prof is out to get me”.
- Acting as if it is not because you didn’t study for example.
- To make you feel better.
145
What is attitudes?
Positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, and ideas (conscious & unconscious).
146
3 Dimensions of Attitudes?
1) Cognitive dimension.
2) Emotional dimension.
3) Behavioural dimension.
147
What is cognitive dimension?
Referring to thoughts and beliefs.
148
What is emotional dimension?
Involves evaluative feeling such as like or dislike.
149
What is behavioural dimension?
Involves how the beliefs and evaluations are demonstrated.
150
Do Attitudes Predict Behaviour?
- It is possible that attitudes shapes behaviour.
- Attitudes are accessible when strong and easily retrievable from memory.
- Norms are important moderators between attitudes and behaviour.
- Social norms.
- Ex. if you think education is important, you will come to class.
151
What are social norms?
-Are the standards and values of the social group that each person internalizes.
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Does Behaviour Determine Attitudes?
- It is possible that behaviour shapes attitudes.
| - Bem’s self-perception theory asserts people infer their attitudes and emotional states from their behaviour.
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Traditional view of attitude?
Attitude shapes behaviour; behaviour follows from attitudes.
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Bem,'s view of attitude?
Behaviour is interpreted; then attitudes are formed.
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What is Cognitive dissonance?
- Uncomfortable about your view on something and the behaviour you engaged in.
- Attitude change can take place when people feel this mental discomfort.
- Festinger and Carlsmith found that when researchers paid participants $1, their attitudes toward a boring experiment were more positive than for participants paid $20.
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The means by which a communication is presented is called?
A medium.
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How Does Attitude Change Occur?
-To be persuasive, the communicator must show:
Integrity
Credibility
Trustworthiness
- Openness to attitude change is related in part to age and education
i. e.,
-Change is far more likely if the person doing the persuading is a friend.
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What is central route?
- Emphasizes conscious, thoughtful consideration of an argument about an issue.
- Attitude change via this route depends on effective, authoritative and logical communication.
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What is peripheral route?
- Emphasizes more emotional, superficial evaluations of a message.
- This route has an indirect but a powerful effect especially when there are no logical arguments that can force the use of central route.
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What is prosocial behaviour?
- Is behaviour that benefits someone else or society that offers no obvious benefit to the person performing it and may involve personal risk or sacrifice.
- Ex. you see someone on the side of the road with car problems and you pull over to help them.
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Motives for Prosocial Behaviour?
Other motives for prosocial behaviour besides innate aspect.
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Batson’s four forces that prompt people to act for the public good?
- Altruism- is helping for which there is no discernible reward, recognition, or appreciation (going to get something out of it --> can help down the road.)
- Egoism- helping out to look good.
- Collectivism- doing it because the group is important and contributing to something for the group.
- Principlism- my morals dictate what I will do for others.
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What is The Bystander Effect?
As the number of people present at an emergency increases, people often watch, but do not help.
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What is a naive participant?
Only 1 participant.
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What is a group?
Is any number of people who share a common purpose, interact with each other, and develop some degree of interdependence.
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What is social facilitation?
- Is a change in behaviour when people are (or believe they are) in the presence of others.
- Being observed.
- Can improve or inhibit a person’s ability to perform a task.
- The presence of others increases arousal.
- Increased arousal = lead to a greater likelihood a particular response will occur.
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What is social loafing?
- Is a decrease in individual effort as a result of working in a group.
- When individual performance cannot be evaluated.
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What is groupthink?
- Tendency for group members to seek concurrence with one another.
- Occurs when members reinforce shared beliefs in the interest of getting along.
- Ex. Wednesdays we wear pink.
- Ex. cults.
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What is group polarization?
Shifts in attitudes or behaviours.
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What is Deindividuation?
- Loss of self-awareness and distinctive personality in a group.
- In groups, normally thoughtful people can exhibit irrational behaviour like mob violence (ex. gang rapes- no longer see themselves as outside, but part of a group).
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What is conformity?
- When a person changes her or his attitudes or behaviours so they are consistent with those of other people or norms, the person is exhibiting conformity.
- Conform to an expectation.
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What is the foot-in-the-door technique?
- Asking for a small favour, then escalating the compliance by asking for increasingly larger favours.
- Ex. planned to stay at a boys house. First, asks to go to his house for an hour. Then, asks to stay the night.
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What is the low-ball technique?
Obtaining a commitment and then raising the cost of the commitment.
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What is reactance?
Arises when people feel their freedom is being restricted, they are motivated to reestablish it.
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What is Reciprocation?
More likely to comply if they give you something back.
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What is Liking?
If you like someone you are more likely to do something for them.
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What is Scarcity?
Ex. beanie babies were all the rage so you buy a whole bunch for no reason because they are limited and now just sit in your attic.
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What is Authority?
Ex. doctor wearing a white lab coat.
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What is obedience?
Compliance with the orders of another person or group.
