Final Exam Flashcards
(120 cards)
1
Q
COMPLEXITY, INTENSITY, AND RISK
PERCEPTION
3 levels of debate:
A
- Factual evidence and probabilities
- Institutional performance, expertise, and
experience - Conflicts about world views and value systems
2
Q
Degree to which the 3 levels of debate are engaged is dependent on:
A
Degree of complexity
Intensity of conflict
3
Q
UNDERSTANDING THE ISSUES AND RISKS
Fundamental Obstacle
A
Fundamental obstacles in bringing about change
to any environmental issue is dealing with a lack
of understanding MANY things
4
Q
UNDERSTANDING THE ISSUES AND RISKS
Obstacles
A
The information source
The communication channel
The recipient
The message
5
Q
Components of the Communication Triangle
A
context, writer, reader, reality, text (is in the middle)
6
Q
AUDIENCE AND PURPOSE
A
Understand your audience for a piece of writing
Understand your purpose for a piece of writing
The better you understand your audience and
purpose, the better your document will
accomplish your goals
7
Q
IS IT AN “AUDIENCE”?
A
“User” is more accurate term
Users are active participants, not passive
recipients of your writing
No general audience in technical communication
Good technical communication tailors the
message to the needs of its target users
8
Q
TYPES OF USERS
A
First-time or basic Novice Experienced Advanced Expert
Rhetorical question:
What kind of information does each type
of user need?
9
Q
Initial audience
A
the first reader to encounter your message
10
Q
Gatekeeper
A
a reader who has the power to stop your message
11
Q
Primary
A
reader who will act on your message
12
Q
Secondary
A
reader who comments on or implements your message after it is approved
13
Q
Watchdog
A
reader with political, social, or economic power who can comment on your message
14
Q
WHAT SHOULD YOU KNOW ABOUT YOUR TARGET USER GROUP?
A
Level of EXPERIENCE with the subject matter of
your document
EDUCATIONAL background, generally and
specifically
Experience with an ATTITUDE towards learning
new subjects
Experience with and attitude towards TECHNOLOGY generally and your topic specifically
Relevant DEMOGRAPHIC characteristics (sex, age,
race, socio-economic background, culture, etc.)
15
Q
Job advertisement
A
Lists position details, qualifications, and contact information
16
Q
Application letter
A
Responds to advertisement, listing applicant’s
qualifications and experience
17
Q
Résumé
A
Accompanies application letter, providing evidence of qualifications and experience, as well as contact information
18
Q
ANALYSE YOUR QUALIFICATIONS
A
- For ad’s major qualifications, list your strengths
that match or nearly match - For ad’s minor qualifications, list your strengths
that match or nearly match - List examples of specific experience you’ve had
that show your qualifications or experience - Focus on examples that “prove” you have desired
and required qualifications
19
Q
APPLICATION LETTER CONVENTIONS
A
Distinguish between “must have” and “would be nice” Statements that: 1. Apply for the job 2. State the location of job 3. Summarize primary qualifications 4. Refer to enclosed resume 5. Give contact information
20
Q
General ethics: Utilitarian
A
greatest good, least harm
21
Q
General ethics: Rights
A
protect the moral rights (freedom, privacy, choice) of those affected by the decision
22
Q
General ethics: Fairness/Justice
A
treat everyone equally
23
Q
General ethics: common good
A
act in the common good
24
Q
General ethics: virtue
A
choose actions that align with virtuous values
25
PLAGIARISM: WHAT IS IT?
Not giving credit to others for their contributions
to the work you do
Omitting references to the books, articles, and
websites you may have consulted to complete a
project
Missing, incomplete, or inaccurate references to
consulted works
26
ADVANTAGES OF SURVEYS
A large number of people can be consulted.
The same questions are asked of each
respondent.
Results can be counted and compared to those of
other surveys.
27
DISADVANTAGES OF SURVEYS
Will the respondents’ individual comments be
kept confidential?
Is there enough time and space on the survey for
respondents to say what they think or raise
relevant issues?
Do the questions direct respondents to answer in
certain ways?
28
Two kinds of survey questions
1. open ended survey questions
| 2. close ended questions
29
open-ended questions pros and cons
Allow respondents to answer in their own words
Allow for unanticipated responses
Generate wide-ranging answers that are difficult to
categorize
Take respondents longer to answer, meaning some
won’t
30
close-ended questions pros and cons
More reliable than open-ended questions
Easy to code and compile into tables and statistics
Not always exact because the answers listed may not
accurately reflect respondents’ views
Less time-consuming to answer than open-ended
questions, which perhaps will encourage respondents
to complete them
31
close-ended question definition
present predetermined answers from which respondents choose
32
What is style?
Clarity
Cohesion
Plain language
Parallelism
33
Clarity
Place the context of familiar information on the
left, at the start of a sentence.
Place main ideas as the subjects of sentences
34
cohesion
Link sentences from start to start
35
PLAIN LANGUAGE GUIDELINES
Plain language involves an ethical relationship
between reader and writer.
Writers want to communicate clearly with
readers.
Take your readers’ point of view.
Organize ideas around what your reader needs to
know.
36
Parallelism
Use matching grammatical structures when you
| write lists of items.
37
Example of parallelism
Parallel
Arenadeck®
Provides sound and thermal insulation
Resists contamination
38
Sentences and paragraphs
```
Be direct.
Organize your ideas.
Use short sentences.
What is short? Aim for about 14 words.
Use short paragraphs.
What is short? Aim for 6 to 8 lines of
text.
```
39
CLARITY IS THE GOAL
Don’t sacrifice clarity to keep sentences short.
Link related ideas by using words that refer back to ideas you have already mentioned
Don’t shorten sentences by leaving these words and
transitions out.
40
Brief Definitions
clarifying the meaning of a word by using
a more familiar synonym (i.e., a parenthetical
definition) or restating a word in different terms
to clarify the example.
41
FORMAL OR CATEGORICAL DEFINITION
ie) a table with definitions
42
Expanded definition
Expanded definitions are appropriate when
audiences require more detail.
Based on your audience and purpose, an
expanded definition may be a short paragraph or
it may extend to several pages.
43
Description
“Describing, verbal portrait(ure) of person, object,
or event . . . more or less complete definition; sort,
kind, class”
44
What is document design?
Refers to page layout, that is, where the visuals
and information are placed on a page and the
visual relationships established between these
elements on the page and other pages in a multipage document
An effective layout can help users of technical
communication
Poor layout can hinder users
45
Elements of document design?
```
Typefaces and fonts
White space
Layout
Boxes
Lines
Illustrations
Icons
Lists, bullets, numbers
Arrows
```
46
Four Design Principles
1. Proximity
2. Alignment
3. Repetition
4. Contrast
47
Proximity
Refers to visual groupings of related items
Grouped items imply some relationship
Separate items imply lack of relation
Create it through grouping items on a page
Aim for three to five items per page
48
Alignment
```
Refers to lining up elements on a page
Helps you avoid arbitrary placement of elements
on a page
Helps you create visual connections on a page
Choose from
Left alignment
Right alignment
Centering alignment
```
49
Repetition
Consists of taking some aspect of the design and
incorporating it consciously throughout the
document
Choose typefaces, lines, bullets, or design
elements (symbols, images, etc.)
Use it to
Unify the page
Add visual interest
Increase the likelihood the pages will be read
50
Contrast
Make two items exactly the same or make them
very different
Use contrast to
Make the clear the purpose and organization of the
document
To create visual interest on the page
51
Sources of contrast
```
Size
Typefaces
Lines
Colours
Textures
Horizontal and vertical
```
52
Layout Grid
Refers to the overall plan you develop for
organizing information on a single page or many
pages
Basic grid structure helps readers anticipate
your document layout and know quickly where
to look for different types of information
53
Vertical Space
The top-to-bottom perpendicular distance
between the elements on the page
Between paragraphs, between visuals and their
captions, between subheadings and paragraphs,
etc.)
54
Horizontal Space
The left-to-right measurement of visual or
verbal elements
Line lengths, areas of white space between elements,
etc.
Space between elements on a page, and the width of
objects and how far apart they are.
55
What is a grid?
Subdivides a page (or mirror pages) into
columns (vertical) and rows (horizontal)
Use the intersecting columns and rows as
units of space where you can create
consistent-sized areas to place your
content
It helps you organize your vertical and
horizontal space between separate elements
56
When to use visuals?
-To see that ideas are presented completely
-To emphasize material
-To make points vivid
-To find relationships
-To present material more compactly and with
less repetition
57
Six steps to creating good visuals
1. Check the SOURCE of the data.
2. Determine the STORY that you want to
tell.
3. Choose RIGHT visual for the story.
4. Follow CONVENTIONS for designing
typical visuals.
5. Use COLOUR and DECORATION with
restraint.
6. Be sure the visual is accurate and
ethical.
58
tables
Use these when readers need to be able to identify exact values
59
charts or graphs
Use these when you want your reader to focus on relationships
60
pie chart
compares a part to the whole
61
bar chart
compares one item to another
62
bar chart or line graph
compares items over time
63
Bar chart/line graph/dot chart
shows correlations
64
X-Y Scatter Plot
Can be used to demonstrate a series of environmental
| data points
65
Photographs
Use these
to create a sense of authenticity
to show an item in use
Include reference point to show size
66
drawings
Show dimensions or emphasize detail
67
maps
emphasize location
68
Avoid chartjunk
```
Avoid decorations that are irrelevant
to the visual.
Avoid adding elements that might
mislead the reader.
Use clip art that is representative—a
mix of both sexes, various races and
ages, and various physical
conditions.
```
69
Four strategies for getting a response
1. Know your readers: What are they likely to
know or want?
2. Understand what motivates your readers: What
are their needs and goals?
3. Organize and present your ideas to show
readers how responding to your request can
meet their own needs.
4. Build good will for yourself and your
organization.
70
How to format a memo
To: [put your reader’s name here]
From: [put your name here]
Date: [put today’s date here]
Subject: [write a brief statement of the memo’s subject here]
Then start writing your memo here. If headings are
appropriate, use them in the body of your memo to signpost
important topics related to your subject and to help your
reader understand. Do NOT start your memo with the
heading “Introduction.”
71
formatting business letters
Print business letters on organization letterhead.
Use a block format (align all parts of the letter
along the left margin).
Leave a line between paragraphs, but do not
indent them.
Leave a two to three centimetre margin on all
four sides of the page.
If you use letterhead, omit your address
information.
72
CONVENTIONS FOR FORMATTING A
BUSINESS LETTER USING BLOCK FORMAT
page one
Your name
Address
Phone number
Today’s date
Recipient’s name
Company name
Address
```
Subject: [What the letter is about]
Dear [recipient’s name]:
As mentioned, leave a two to three cm
margin on all sides of the letter. If you
are using letterhead, omit your name
and address.
```
73
CONVENTIONS FOR FORMATTING A
BUSINESS LETTER USING BLOCK FORMAT
page two
Left align all parts of the letter.
Leave a space between paragraphs
but do not indent the first line of
paragraphs.
Sincerely,
[your signature]
Your name
Your title
Enclosures: [number of enclosures]
Cc: [Names of people copied]
74
WRITING MESSAGES: INFORMATIVE
Basic organizational pattern:
Present main points briefly.
Add details and include all relevant information.
State any negative elements as positively as you
can.
Include additional details to highlight how
readers benefit from this information.
End with a goodwill closing.
75
Goals of writing a positive message
Sharing good news
Downplaying any negative elements
Ensuring that readers read, understand, and
respond positively
76
Secondary goals of writing a positive message
Ensuring reader thinks well of you and your
organization
Showing that no further communication is needed
on this topic
77
Writing negative messages
You expect readers to receive the message with anger
| or disappointment.
78
Goals of writing a negative message
To communicate information in a way that readers can
accept.
To diffuse any negative emotions as far as possible.
To forestall any additional communication on this topic.
To maintain the readers’ good will towards you and your
organization.
79
Writing persuasive messages
Persuasive messages are those that you expect
| readers to resist.
80
Two types of persuasive messages
Direct request messages
| Solution-finding messages
81
WHAT KINDS OF PROPOSALS ARE THERE?
internal, solicited, unsolicited, sole-source contracts
82
internal proposal
written by a division within a company to persuade management to approve an idea or project
83
solicited proposal
submitted in response to RFPs or specifications
| NSERC Discovery Grants
84
unsolicited proposal
individual or company has identified a problem and devised the solution that the proposal presents
85
sole-source contracts proposal
organization intends to engage only one company to supply a product or service (one company is usually selected prior to publishing the RFP)
86
What is a proposal?
“A proposal is primarily a sophisticated sales
piece that seeks to define a client’s problem
and/or opportunities and to sell the client on your
company’s ability to provide solutions and
strategies.”
It shows how you can provide help to solve the client’s problem.
87
Important points to note about proposals
Show not only that you can solve the problem
well but also that you can solve it better than
others proposing solutions.
Persuasion is a key element of a winning
proposal.
You must sell your ideas, as well as your
expertise and dependability.
Price is not the primary criterion for selection:
professional competence and prior record are
the deciding factors.
88
PERSUASION AND PROPOSAL WRITING
Proposals are persuasive documents.
They seek to move readers to a particular action.
Your proposal should make an argument.
What are the components of argument?
Logic
Credibility
Emotional appeal
89
Logic in a Proposal
Logic refers to the internal consistency of
your message.
You make a series of claims, supported by
evidence.
Claims develop the main points you want to
make about your proposed solution.
The evidence supports the claims to convince
the reader that you can develop and deliver
the solution you propose.
90
Emotional Appeal of a Proposal
An emotional appeal is the legitimate use of
readers’ emotions and feelings to engage their
minds.
Include truthful and clear evidence to support
your claims, so readers can understand the
importance of the situation you describe.
A successful emotional appeal is critical to
getting readers to act on your logical appeal and
your appeal to credibility.
91
Sound advice!
Don’t write your proposal to sound good. Write
your proposal to help the evaluator make a
decision.
92
What is a recommendation report?
A recommendation report is the written outcome
that often follows a study or research into a
particular problem.
It usually describes the problem and then
presents several possible solutions based on
research.
It ends with a neutral description of the
solutions.
If the writer has been asked to solve the problem,
then he or she recommends one solution over the
others and explains why it is superior.
93
Report strucure
1. Memo or letter of transmittal
2. Title page
3. Executive summary or abstract
4. Recommendation
5. Report body
6. Conclusions
7. Notes, references, works cited
8. Appendices (if applicable)
94
BODY OF THE REPORT: Academic
| 1. LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview of problem that prompted this report
Specialized form of the background section
What is the current state of science on the
topic, or subject of report?
Identify trends in the current research
Produce a summary of the trends or lines of
thought about the topic
This will lead to knowledge gaps or Purpose
section next…
95
BODY OF THE REPORT: 2. PURPOSE
Brief statement outlining the purpose of the
project and the goal of the report
Explains why the report was written
Academic: highlights the knowledge gaps that
need to be addressed
96
BODY OF THE REPORT: 3. METHODS
Describe how you collected the information that
you are presenting in this report
Databases accessed and dates accessed
Show that you did a competent and thorough job
of studying the problem and looking for a range
of appropriate solutions
Aim for a concise discussion about your sources of
information
If results based on statistical analysis state
what the statistical methods and program used
were
97
BODY OF THE REPORT: 4. RESULTS
Summarizes the data that you collected and what
you see as the results of this research:
Use tables, graphs, charts, and figures to present
statistical or numerical information.
- Highlight the data that supports the argument you
are making in the report.
- Do not present your interpretation of the results in
this section.
98
BODY OF THE REPORT: 5. DISCUSSION
Do put your INTERPRETATION of the data in this
section
Explain your THINKING BEHIND the decisions
you’ve made about SOLUTIONS to the problem
Highlight your most important FINDINGS and
show why you think they are important
Discuss the IMPLICATIONS of your findings
99
BODY OF THE REPORT: 6. CONCLUSIONS
Summarize the main points you want readers to
take away from the report
Do not introduce new information into your
report at this point
Present conclusions in a bulleted or numbered
list to emphasize them and make them easy to
scan
100
NOTES, REFERENCES, APPENDICES
Collect any notes from the body of the report and
place them at the end
Any published sources (books, articles, websites,
etc.) should be included in the references or
works cited
Data, questionnaires, or printouts of statistical
analyses should appear in an appendix
101
THE LABORATORY NOTEBOOK
Records the information that will form the
foundation of a good lab report
During the experiment, record clearly and in
detail in the notebook
-Your ACTIONS
-Your OBSERVATIONS
-Your THOUGHTS
102
QUALITIES OF A LAB NOTEBOOK
It should be a BOUND volume
All pages should be NUMBERED and DATED in
sequence.
All entries should be in waterproof, non-erasable
INK.
Do not leave any pages blank.
103
Notebook pre-lab
The pre-lab is usually prepared in advance of
conducting the experiment:
Left side of the page contains pre-lab information
104
Narrative or In-lab
The narrative or in-lab is written during the lab:
The right side of the page displays the narrative
(observations) and measurements made during the
experiment
105
The lab report
The lab report is the final stage in the process of
research.
Here is where you interpret and communicate
the results of your study.
In school, lab reports are used to assess and
evaluate your performance in the lab.
They also help you learn how to process the
information you collect, analyse it into an
interpretation, and present it as an argument
supported by data.
106
Format of a lab report
1. Title (and author or authors)
2. Introduction
3. Procedure and materials (may be separate)
4. Results
5. Discussion (may be combined)
6. References
7. Appendices
107
Presenting data
Use tables, charts, and diagrams or
illustrations.
Include a verbal description of your data
to accompany the visuals.
The verbal description should draw your
readers’ attention to what you see as the
important points.
Only present data; do not get into
interpretations yet.
108
Lab report discussion
Explain to readers in detail what your RESULTS MEAN
Return to the REASON for conducting the experiment
outlined in your INTRODUCTION
Explain how your work IMPROVES OUR UNDERSTANDING of the original problem.
Explore the BROADER IMPLICATIONS of your results, if appropriate.
Impact and applications of what you found
BRING IN SUITABLE THEORY to help explain your
findings.
PUTS DATA IN CONTEXT WITH WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN
109
PEER REVIEW SUBMISSIONS
```
Primary Research
Review papers
Briefs
Comments
Opinions
```
110
Primary Research
(5000- 8000 words)
111
Review Papers
(8000- 12000 words)
112
Briefs
(1500- 3000 words)
113
Comments
(1000- 1200 words max)
114
Opinions
(3000 words max)
115
common speaking occasions
Casual, impromptu short talks to small groups
More formal speaking to small groups
Informal, prepared presentations
Formal presentations
Group presentations (you are one of a group of
presenters)
116
TIPS FOR PREPARING A GOOD POSTER PRESENTATION
Ensure that the poster is readable from at least FIVE FEET AWAY
Aim for CLARITY AND SIMPLICITY in the poster design.
Organizing the poster in COLUMNS is recommended.
RESIST THE TEMPTATION TO OVERLOAD the poster with excessive text and data. Infographics are
recommended.
Include the following: objectives, design or
methods, results and conclusions.
Abstain from including an abstract and
excessive background details.
117
BASIC GUIDELINES FOR PREPARING PRESENTATIONS
Decide what information to include in your
presentation slides or outline and what to put
into a handout.
Determine how much background to present
early in the presentation.
Organize your presentation so listeners can
follow your thoughts as you move through the
material.
Create visuals to accompany your verbal
descriptions.
118
OUTLINE FOR ONE WAY TO ORGANIZE A PRESENTATION
```
Interesting opening
Description of topic
Definition of any special terms
Brief description of how information was
gathered
Presentation of main ideas
Conclusions
Questions
```
119
GUIDELINES FOR GIVING PRESENTATIONS
```
Take advantage of the immediacy
of having live human beings in the
same room with you.
Stand so that your audience can
see the visuals that you display on
the screen.
Control the timing of the slides so
that you control when the
presentation moves from one topic
to another.
Breathe!
```
120
PREPARATION IS KEY
Prepare yourself.
Handouts and interesting slides give your
audience something to look at other than you.
The care you have taken to prepare will be
obvious, and listeners will respond, encouraging
you to continue.
Once you begin well, you have a good chance of
finishing well.
