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AnP 1 WQ 2024 > Final Exam LOs units 1-3 > Flashcards

Final Exam LOs units 1-3 Flashcards

1
Q

Anatomy

A

think structures (internal vs. external), and what it’s made up of + location

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2
Q

Physiology

A

describes functions of the body

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3
Q

Explain the integrative relationship between structure and function

A

Specific functions are performed by specific structures, and the form of a structure relates to its function

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4
Q

Define homeostasis and explain why it is important to proper body function

A

all body systems work together to maintain a stable internal environment in response to external and internal changes (to function within a normal range)

it’s important because different parts of your body have an optimal range they work in, and homeostasis makes sure your body is in that range

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5
Q

Describe the three key components of homeostatic regulatory mechanism including receptor, control center, and effector

A

receptor- receives and recognizes the stimulus change

control center- processes the signal + sends instructions

effector- cell/organ that carries out instructions to oppose or enhance the stimulus

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6
Q

Autoregulation

A

think intrinsic, cell, tissue, or organ that adjusts in response to some type of change INDEPENDENTLY

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7
Q

Extrinsic Regulation

A

body’s response is controlled by nervous or endocrine system (system implies MULTIPLE things occurring at once)

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8
Q

Negative feedback mechanism + example

A

response of the effector negates the stimulus (can add or subtract) and the point is the body is brought BACK into homeostasis

ex: an increase in body temp —> sweat occurs to lower body temp

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9
Q

Positive feedback mechanism + example

A

response of the effector increases/amplifies the change of the stimulus, body is moved AWAY from homeostasis

ex: (not many) uterine contractions during childbirth

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10
Q

Dynamic Equilibrium

A

state in which physiological systems are continually adapting to changing conditions

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11
Q

Plasma membrane

A

it’s basically is the phospholipid bilayer thing that determines what substances move across the membrane

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12
Q

Describe which type of materials can easily pass through the plasma membrane and those that cannot

A

CAN pass: small nonpolar molecultes

CANNOT: large charged molecules

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13
Q

Diffusion

A

the idea that molecules like to spread themselves out evenly within a given area, net movement is molecules going from a high concentration to low concentration (which is the concentration gradient)

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14
Q

Simple diffusion

A

small, uncharged, and nonpolar molecules can move across the membrane WITHOUT help

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15
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

diffusion of molecules WITH help of transport proteins

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16
Q

Osmosis

A

the diffusion of water across the membrane toward solution with more solutes

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17
Q

Hypertonic

A

there is more solute OUTside of the cell, and so water flows outside the cell and shrinks

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18
Q

Hypotonic

A

there is more solute INside of the cell, and so water goes into the cell and it bursts

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19
Q

Isotonic

A

solute concentrations are equal so this is healthy cell

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20
Q

Carrier mediated transport

A

1) Specificity: one transport protein, one set of substrates

2) Saturation limits: number of transport proteins may limit the amount of substrate transport

3) Regulation of Activity: cofactors, such as hormones

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21
Q

Facilitated Diffusion

A

carrier mediated transport, molecules too large and hydrophilic to fit through channel proteins

passive, goes down concentration gradient

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22
Q

Active Transport

A

carrier mediated transport, carrier proteins go AGAINST the concentration gradient, requires energy i.e. ATP

you’ve got primary and secondary
primary think sodium potassium pump

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23
Q

Secondary Active Transport

A

carrier proteins use Na+movement DOWN its concentration gradient to drive transport of a second molecule

ATP energy pumps back Na+ back out (via primary active transport)

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24
Q

Vesicular Transport

A

think bulk transport, materials moving in or out of vesicles

ENDOcytosis: INto the vesicle; receptor mediated

EXOcytosis: OUT of vesicles, the molecules are released from the vesicle

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25
Q

Tissue

A

cells working together w/discrete structural and functional properties

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26
Q

Types of tissue

A

epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural

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27
Q

Epithelial tissue

A

covers exposed surfaces, lines internal passageways, and forms glands

f(x)s: provide physical protection, control permeability, provides sensation, and provides specialized secretions

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28
Q

Cell Junctions

A

they form bonds w/adjacent cells or extracellular material, there are three types:

1) Gap Junctions: cells have to communicate, think your heart

2) Tight Junctions: prevents anything from getting in, think BBB

3) Desmosomes: keeps cells together enough that they don’t fall apart

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29
Q

Connective tissue

A

supporting tissue consisting of matrix containing cells

f(x)s: fills internal spaces and lies between other tissues, supports other tissues, transports materials, and stores energy

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30
Q

Areolar tissue

A

loosely organized array; mostly ground substance containing all cells and fibers

loose connective tissue

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31
Q

Adipose tissue

A

contains adipocytes and provides padding, insulation, and energy (think FAT)

loose connective tissue

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32
Q

Reticular tissue

A

3-D network supporting parenchyma of soft tissues

loose connective tissue found in pancreas, spleen, and liver

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33
Q

Three types of fibers in connective tissues

A

1) collagen fibers: most common in connective tissue, it’s long, straight, and unbranched, resists force in 1D

2) Elastic fibers: contain elastin, branched and wavy (returns to original length after stretching)

3) Reticular Fibers: network of interwoven fibers that stabilize functional cells and structures

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34
Q

Tissue Membrane

A

epithelial tissue + connective tissue

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35
Q

Mucous Membrane

A

lines passageways that have external connections, epithelial tissue must be moist (reduce friction and facilitate absorption/excretion)

36
Q

Serous Membrane

A

line cavities not open to the outside, they line organs

37
Q

Cutaneous Membrane

A

skin, surface of the body, it’s thick, waterproof, and dry

38
Q

Synovial Membrane

A

located in articulating joint cavities, produces synovial fluid, protects the ends of bones

39
Q

Integumentary System

A

largest system of the body that encompasses the skin and its accessory structures

40
Q

Three components of cutaneous membrane

A

superficial to deep: epidermis, dermis, and hyperdermis

41
Q

functions of integumentary system

A

protection of underlying tissues +organs, excretions of salt + water + organic wastes (glands), maintenance of body temp (insulation + evaporation), production of melanin + keratin, synthesis of vitamin D3, storage of lipids, detection of touch + pressure + pain

42
Q

Skeletal system components

A

bones of the skeleton, cartilages, ligaments, and connective tissues that stabilize or interconnect them

43
Q

Functions of the skeletal system

A

support, storage of minerals (calcium) and lipids (yellow marrow), blood cell production (red marrow), protection, leverage (force of motion)

44
Q

Describe the characteristics of bones

A

it’s dense, supportive connective tissue; it has specialized cells, it’s a solid matrix of calcium salt deposits, and its collagen fibers act as rebar

45
Q

Describe the components of the bone matrix and the f(x) of each

A

1) one-third of the bone matrix is made up collagen fibers (organic)

2) two-thirds of bone matrix is calcium phosphate (inorganic); calcium phosphate reacts w/calcium hydroxide to form crystals of hydroxyapatite

collagen fibers provide framework for hydroxyapatite to form

protein + crystal combo = flexibility (collagen) and compressive strength (hydroxyapatite)

46
Q

Osteocytes

A

mature bone cells found in the matrix

47
Q

Osteoblasts

A

think furnaces “blast” to create something new, these guys form new bones and they’re immature bone cells

48
Q

Osteoclasts

A

they clash into bone cells, they destroy/dissolve them, and they secrete acids and enzymes to destroy them

49
Q

Compact vs. spongy bone

A

Compact bone: have osteons (basic units of bone), they have a central canal w/blood vessels, and they run parallel to the axis of bone

Spongy bone: does NOT have blood vessels or osteons, houses the trabeculae and its filled with red marrow that creates blood cells and sometimes they have yellow marrow that creates fat

50
Q

Describe the organization of osteons, lamellae, and canals in compact bone

A

your central canal is within your concentric lamellae, and that is in your compact bone

it is organized in those swirly things in your compact bone

51
Q

List the bones, or parts of bones, that develop from each type of ossification

A

ossification is the process of bones being developed and formed, and there are two processes that occur 1) Endochondral ossification and 2) intramembranous ossification

endrochondral ossifies bones from hyaline cartilage, and it creates most of the bones in your body

intramembranous produces dermal bones such as the mandible, clavicle, and cranial bones of the skull

52
Q

Outline the relationship between bone formation and bone resorption in bone remodeling

A

Process of remodeling:
-bone continually remodels, recycles, and replaces
-involves osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts
-turnover rate varies
1) if deposition is greater than removal, bones get
stronger
2) if removal is faster than replacement, bones gets
weaker

53
Q

Describe the major factors that affect bone growth including exercise, nutrition, hormones

A

increase in exercise heavily stresses your bones and so its constantly being replaced

decreased exercises makes your bones weaker because they degenerate quickly so abt 1/3 of bone mass can be destroyed if you aren’t active

54
Q

Describe the major factors that affect bone growth including nutrition

A

you need calcium and phosphate salts, but vitamin c is used for collagen synthesis, and vitamin D as well for calcitriol which stimulates calcium and phosphorus absorption in digestive tract

55
Q

Describe the major factors that affect bone growth including hormones

A

1) growth hormone w/thyroid hormone stimulates bone growth, 2) estrogen and androgens stimulate osteoblast activity, 3) calcitrol stimulates calcium + phosphorus absorption from digestive tract, 4) calcitonin and parathyroid hormone regulate calcium + phosphate levels in blood

56
Q

Discuss how mechanical stress affects bone remodeling and bone strength

A

the more stress the more your bone cells are destroyed and remade so your bones become stronger

57
Q

Explain general role of bone in calcitonin

A

when blood calcium levels are HIGH your thyroid (in its C cells) release calcitonin which decreases blood calcium levels

58
Q

Explain the general role of the Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

A

when calcium levels are low, the parathyroid glands secrete PTH which increases blood calcium levels by sometimes stimulating osteoclasts

59
Q

Describe the type of movement at synovial joints

A

flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, and circumdunction

60
Q

flexion

A

reduces angle between elements

61
Q

extension

A

increases angle between elements

62
Q

hyperextension

A

extension past anatomical position

63
Q

abduction

A

frontal plane, moves away from longitudinal axis

64
Q

adduction

A

frontal plane, moves toward longitudinal axis

65
Q

circumduction

A

circular motion w/o rotation

66
Q

List the six functions of skeletal muscle

A

produces skeletal movement, maintains posture/position, support soft tissue, guard entrances/exits, maintains body temp, stores nutrient reserves

67
Q

Describe the basic structure of a myofibril including the arrangement of thick and thin myofilaments in a
sarcomere

A

ok so in your skeletal muscles you have fassicles which are just bundles of muscle fibers. Within the fassicle you have fibers which are just muscle cells. Each muscle fiber has myofibrils that contain sarcomeres with myofilaments. Myofilaments are the thick and thin filaments in your sarcomere.

68
Q

Explain intracellular calcium levels during a resting and contracting skeletal muscle fiber

A

when skeletal muscles are CONTRACTING Ca2+ is being released from the SR via Ion channel (going down concentration gradient) to the sarcoplasm

when skeletal muscles are RELAXING Ca2+ is being pumped into SR from sarcoplasm via primary active transport because it’s going UP it’s concentration gradient, which means using ATP

69
Q

Neuromuscular Junction

A

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): this is basically the first set of steps to control skeletal muscle activity. It’s when a special intercellular connection between the nervous system and skeletal muscle fiber is created, and it also controls calcium ion release into the sarcoplasm

70
Q

Outline the series of steps in which a neuron controls skeletal muscle activity by stimulating a muscle fiber at the neuromuscular junction

A

1) action potential is generated, which is just a neuro signal, 2) Ca2+ entry via neuron (axon terminal), 3) release of ACh from the vesicles, 4) ACh binds to receptors, 5) generates AP on sarcolemma, 6) runs down T-tubules, 7) contraction occurs

71
Q

Describe the events of excitation-contraction coupling

A

it’s a component of NMJ

excitation: action potential runs down t-tubules at the triad, and that stimulates calcium release into the muscle cell

contraction: contraction occurs as long as calcium ions stay in the sarcoplasm and are bound to troponin

72
Q

List each step involved in cross-bridge formation and detachment during the contraction cycle

A

1) contraction cycle begins with the arrival of calcium ions, 2) active-site exposure where calcium ions bind to troponin, 3) cross-bridge formation created when myosin heads attach to active sites, 4) myosin head pivoting (stroke), 5) cross-bridge detachment occurs when ATP binds to myosin head so it leaves the active site, 6) myosin reactivation is when ATP is broken down to ADP so that the energy can be used to recock the myosin head

73
Q

Describe the role of ATP in contraction and relaxation specifically at the level of the sarcomere

A

1) ATP provides energy for the pivot
2) ATP also causes myosin heads to detach

74
Q

Requirements for muscle relaxation

A

contraction duration depends on: duration of neural stimulus, and number of free calcium ions in sarcoplasm

Ca2+ concentrations fall (calcium pumped back into SR), Ca2+ detaches from troponin so then active sites are recovered by tropomyosin

75
Q

Tension

A

when muscles cells contract, they pull on the attached tendon fibers; tension is the pull, it needs energy because it’s an active force

76
Q

Explain the two factors that determine the amount of tension produced by a whole skeletal muscle

A

1) fiber’s resting length (#of cross-bridges)
2) frequency of stimulation (how often it receives AP): determines the amount of calcium in sarcoplasm

77
Q

Fiber’s resting length

A

optimum overlap of thick + thin filaments during cross-bridging is 75-130%

78
Q

Motor unit

A

all muscle fibers have one single neuron attached to it, but one neuron can be attached to multiple muscles, which is a motor neuron part of a neuron unit

79
Q

Describe the relationship between motor unit size and muscle control

A

the size of the motor unit dictates how fine the control movement can be

PRECISE control= 4-6 muscle fibers per neuron (i.e the eye)

GENERAL control= 1,000-2,000 fibers (i.e the leg)

80
Q

Discuss energy production during resting, and moderate and peak levels of activity

A

Physical conditioning: alters muscle characteristics and fiber type

Anaerobic activities: improved by frequent, brief, intensive workouts, which reduces fatigue time in fast fibers

Aerobic activities: prolonged activity, improved by endurance training, training fast fibers to be more like intermediate fibers

81
Q

Atrophy

A

lack of muscle activity, so it reduces muscle size, tone, and power

82
Q

Explain calcium activation of myosin cross bridge in smooth muscle

A

the myofilaments don’t have sarcomeres, so the thin filaments are connected to dense bodies on the plasma membrane

calcium comes from pouch-like infolding called caveolae that contains extracellular fluid (no T-tubules and a less developed SR)

83
Q

Hyperplasia

A

smooth muscles ability to increase in cell number, so cell division basically

84
Q

Contraction steps for smooth muscle

A

1) calcium binds to calmodulin
2) calmodulin activates myosin light chain kinase, which phosphorylates myosin, activating it
3) contraction via the sliding filament mechanism
4) contraction ends when the calcium levels drop and the myosin is dephosphorylated (by an enzyme)

85
Q

Smooth muscle length-tension relationship

A

smooth muscle stretches more and generates more tension than skeletal muscle at comparable lengths, and it allows for tremendous changes in volume without becoming flabby when empty (think stomach and bladder)

AnP 1 WQ 2024 (10 decks)

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