Final Exam LOs units 1-3

Question 1

Anatomy

Answer 1

think structures (internal vs. external), and what it’s made up of + location

Question 2

Physiology

Answer 2

describes functions of the body

Question 3

Explain the integrative relationship between structure and function

Answer 3

Specific functions are performed by specific structures, and the form of a structure relates to its function

Question 4

Define homeostasis and explain why it is important to proper body function

Answer 4

all body systems work together to maintain a stable internal environment in response to external and internal changes (to function within a normal range)

it’s important because different parts of your body have an optimal range they work in, and homeostasis makes sure your body is in that range

Question 5

Describe the three key components of homeostatic regulatory mechanism including receptor, control center, and effector

Answer 5

receptor- receives and recognizes the stimulus change

control center- processes the signal + sends instructions

effector- cell/organ that carries out instructions to oppose or enhance the stimulus

Question 6

Autoregulation

Answer 6

think intrinsic, cell, tissue, or organ that adjusts in response to some type of change INDEPENDENTLY

Question 7

Extrinsic Regulation

Answer 7

body’s response is controlled by nervous or endocrine system (system implies MULTIPLE things occurring at once)

Question 8

Negative feedback mechanism + example

Answer 8

response of the effector negates the stimulus (can add or subtract) and the point is the body is brought BACK into homeostasis

ex: an increase in body temp —> sweat occurs to lower body temp

Question 9

Positive feedback mechanism + example

Answer 9

response of the effector increases/amplifies the change of the stimulus, body is moved AWAY from homeostasis

ex: (not many) uterine contractions during childbirth

Question 10

Dynamic Equilibrium

Answer 10

state in which physiological systems are continually adapting to changing conditions

Question 11

Plasma membrane

Answer 11

it’s basically is the phospholipid bilayer thing that determines what substances move across the membrane

Question 12

Describe which type of materials can easily pass through the plasma membrane and those that cannot

Answer 12

CAN pass: small nonpolar molecultes

CANNOT: large charged molecules

Question 13

Diffusion

Answer 13

the idea that molecules like to spread themselves out evenly within a given area, net movement is molecules going from a high concentration to low concentration (which is the concentration gradient)

Question 14

Simple diffusion

Answer 14

small, uncharged, and nonpolar molecules can move across the membrane WITHOUT help

Question 15

Facilitated diffusion

Answer 15

diffusion of molecules WITH help of transport proteins

Question 16

Osmosis

Answer 16

the diffusion of water across the membrane toward solution with more solutes

Question 17

Hypertonic

Answer 17

there is more solute OUTside of the cell, and so water flows outside the cell and shrinks

Question 18

Hypotonic

Answer 18

there is more solute INside of the cell, and so water goes into the cell and it bursts

Question 19

Isotonic

Answer 19

solute concentrations are equal so this is healthy cell

Question 20

Carrier mediated transport

Answer 20

1) Specificity: one transport protein, one set of substrates

2) Saturation limits: number of transport proteins may limit the amount of substrate transport

3) Regulation of Activity: cofactors, such as hormones

Question 21

Facilitated Diffusion

Answer 21

carrier mediated transport, molecules too large and hydrophilic to fit through channel proteins

passive, goes down concentration gradient

Question 22

Active Transport

Answer 22

carrier mediated transport, carrier proteins go AGAINST the concentration gradient, requires energy i.e. ATP

you’ve got primary and secondary
primary think sodium potassium pump

Question 23

Secondary Active Transport

Answer 23

carrier proteins use Na+movement DOWN its concentration gradient to drive transport of a second molecule

ATP energy pumps back Na+ back out (via primary active transport)

Question 24

Vesicular Transport

Answer 24

think bulk transport, materials moving in or out of vesicles

ENDOcytosis: INto the vesicle; receptor mediated

EXOcytosis: OUT of vesicles, the molecules are released from the vesicle

Question 25

Tissue

Answer 25

cells working together w/discrete structural and functional properties

Question 26

Types of tissue

Answer 26

epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural

Question 27

Epithelial tissue

Answer 27

covers exposed surfaces, lines internal passageways, and forms glands f(x)s: provide physical protection, control permeability, provides sensation, and provides specialized secretions

Question 28

Cell Junctions

Answer 28

they form bonds w/adjacent cells or extracellular material, there are three types: 1) Gap Junctions: cells have to communicate, think your heart 2) Tight Junctions: prevents anything from getting in, think BBB 3) Desmosomes: keeps cells together enough that they don't fall apart

Question 29

Connective tissue

Answer 29

supporting tissue consisting of matrix containing cells f(x)s: fills internal spaces and lies between other tissues, supports other tissues, transports materials, and stores energy

Question 30

Areolar tissue

Answer 30

loosely organized array; mostly ground substance containing all cells and fibers loose connective tissue

Question 31

Adipose tissue

Answer 31

contains adipocytes and provides padding, insulation, and energy (think FAT) loose connective tissue

Question 32

Reticular tissue

Answer 32

3-D network supporting parenchyma of soft tissues loose connective tissue found in pancreas, spleen, and liver

Question 33

Three types of fibers in connective tissues

Answer 33

1) collagen fibers: most common in connective tissue, it's long, straight, and unbranched, resists force in 1D 2) Elastic fibers: contain elastin, branched and wavy (returns to original length after stretching) 3) Reticular Fibers: network of interwoven fibers that stabilize functional cells and structures

Question 34

Tissue Membrane

Answer 34

epithelial tissue + connective tissue

Question 35

Mucous Membrane

Answer 35

lines passageways that have external connections, epithelial tissue must be moist (reduce friction and facilitate absorption/excretion)

Question 36

Serous Membrane

Answer 36

line cavities not open to the outside, they line organs

Question 37

Cutaneous Membrane

Answer 37

skin, surface of the body, it's thick, waterproof, and dry

Question 38

Synovial Membrane

Answer 38

located in articulating joint cavities, produces synovial fluid, protects the ends of bones

Question 39

Integumentary System

Answer 39

largest system of the body that encompasses the skin and its accessory structures

Question 40

Three components of cutaneous membrane

Answer 40

superficial to deep: epidermis, dermis, and hyperdermis

Question 41

functions of integumentary system

Answer 41

protection of underlying tissues +organs, excretions of salt + water + organic wastes (glands), maintenance of body temp (insulation + evaporation), production of melanin + keratin, synthesis of vitamin D3, storage of lipids, detection of touch + pressure + pain

Question 42

Skeletal system components

Answer 42

bones of the skeleton, cartilages, ligaments, and connective tissues that stabilize or interconnect them

Question 43

Functions of the skeletal system

Answer 43

support, storage of minerals (calcium) and lipids (yellow marrow), blood cell production (red marrow), protection, leverage (force of motion)

Question 44

Describe the characteristics of bones

Answer 44

it's dense, supportive connective tissue; it has specialized cells, it's a solid matrix of calcium salt deposits, and its collagen fibers act as rebar

Question 45

Describe the components of the bone matrix and the f(x) of each

Answer 45

1) one-third of the bone matrix is made up collagen fibers (organic) 2) two-thirds of bone matrix is calcium phosphate (inorganic); calcium phosphate reacts w/calcium hydroxide to form crystals of hydroxyapatite collagen fibers provide framework for hydroxyapatite to form protein + crystal combo = flexibility (collagen) and compressive strength (hydroxyapatite)

Question 46

Osteocytes

Answer 46

mature bone cells found in the matrix

Question 47

Osteoblasts

Answer 47

think furnaces "blast" to create something new, these guys form new bones and they're immature bone cells

Question 48

Osteoclasts

Answer 48

they clash into bone cells, they destroy/dissolve them, and they secrete acids and enzymes to destroy them

Question 49

Compact vs. spongy bone

Answer 49

Compact bone: have osteons (basic units of bone), they have a central canal w/blood vessels, and they run parallel to the axis of bone Spongy bone: does NOT have blood vessels or osteons, houses the trabeculae and its filled with red marrow that creates blood cells and sometimes they have yellow marrow that creates fat

Question 50

Describe the organization of osteons, lamellae, and canals in compact bone

Answer 50

your central canal is within your concentric lamellae, and that is in your compact bone it is organized in those swirly things in your compact bone

Question 51

List the bones, or parts of bones, that develop from each type of ossification

Answer 51

ossification is the process of bones being developed and formed, and there are two processes that occur 1) Endochondral ossification and 2) intramembranous ossification endrochondral ossifies bones from hyaline cartilage, and it creates most of the bones in your body intramembranous produces dermal bones such as the mandible, clavicle, and cranial bones of the skull

Question 52

Outline the relationship between bone formation and bone resorption in bone remodeling

Answer 52

Process of remodeling: -bone continually remodels, recycles, and replaces -involves osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts -turnover rate varies 1) if deposition is greater than removal, bones get stronger 2) if removal is faster than replacement, bones gets weaker

Question 53

Describe the major factors that affect bone growth including exercise, nutrition, hormones

Answer 53

increase in exercise heavily stresses your bones and so its constantly being replaced decreased exercises makes your bones weaker because they degenerate quickly so abt 1/3 of bone mass can be destroyed if you aren't active

Question 54

Describe the major factors that affect bone growth including nutrition

Answer 54

you need calcium and phosphate salts, but vitamin c is used for collagen synthesis, and vitamin D as well for calcitriol which stimulates calcium and phosphorus absorption in digestive tract

Question 55

Describe the major factors that affect bone growth including hormones

Answer 55

1) growth hormone w/thyroid hormone stimulates bone growth, 2) estrogen and androgens stimulate osteoblast activity, 3) calcitrol stimulates calcium + phosphorus absorption from digestive tract, 4) calcitonin and parathyroid hormone regulate calcium + phosphate levels in blood

Question 56

Discuss how mechanical stress affects bone remodeling and bone strength

Answer 56

the more stress the more your bone cells are destroyed and remade so your bones become stronger

Question 57

Explain general role of bone in calcitonin

Answer 57

when blood calcium levels are HIGH your thyroid (in its C cells) release calcitonin which decreases blood calcium levels

Question 58

Explain the general role of the Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)

Answer 58

when calcium levels are low, the parathyroid glands secrete PTH which increases blood calcium levels by sometimes stimulating osteoclasts

Question 59

Describe the type of movement at synovial joints

Answer 59

flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, and circumdunction

Question 60

flexion

Answer 60

reduces angle between elements

Question 61

extension

Answer 61

increases angle between elements

Question 62

hyperextension

Answer 62

extension past anatomical position

Question 63

abduction

Answer 63

frontal plane, moves away from longitudinal axis

Question 64

adduction

Answer 64

frontal plane, moves toward longitudinal axis

Question 65

circumduction

Answer 65

circular motion w/o rotation

Question 66

List the six functions of skeletal muscle

Answer 66

produces skeletal movement, maintains posture/position, support soft tissue, guard entrances/exits, maintains body temp, stores nutrient reserves

Question 67

Describe the basic structure of a myofibril including the arrangement of thick and thin myofilaments in a sarcomere

Answer 67

ok so in your skeletal muscles you have fassicles which are just bundles of muscle fibers. Within the fassicle you have fibers which are just muscle cells. Each muscle fiber has myofibrils that contain sarcomeres with myofilaments. Myofilaments are the thick and thin filaments in your sarcomere.

Question 68

Explain intracellular calcium levels during a resting and contracting skeletal muscle fiber

Answer 68

when skeletal muscles are CONTRACTING Ca2+ is being released from the SR via Ion channel (going down concentration gradient) to the sarcoplasm when skeletal muscles are RELAXING Ca2+ is being pumped into SR from sarcoplasm via primary active transport because it's going UP it's concentration gradient, which means using ATP

Question 69

Neuromuscular Junction

Answer 69

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ): this is basically the first set of steps to control skeletal muscle activity. It's when a special intercellular connection between the nervous system and skeletal muscle fiber is created, and it also controls calcium ion release into the sarcoplasm

Question 70

Outline the series of steps in which a neuron controls skeletal muscle activity by stimulating a muscle fiber at the neuromuscular junction

Answer 70

1) action potential is generated, which is just a neuro signal, 2) Ca2+ entry via neuron (axon terminal), 3) release of ACh from the vesicles, 4) ACh binds to receptors, 5) generates AP on sarcolemma, 6) runs down T-tubules, 7) contraction occurs

Question 71

Describe the events of excitation-contraction coupling

Answer 71

it's a component of NMJ excitation: action potential runs down t-tubules at the triad, and that stimulates calcium release into the muscle cell contraction: contraction occurs as long as calcium ions stay in the sarcoplasm and are bound to troponin

Question 72

List each step involved in cross-bridge formation and detachment during the contraction cycle

Answer 72

1) contraction cycle begins with the arrival of calcium ions, 2) active-site exposure where calcium ions bind to troponin, 3) cross-bridge formation created when myosin heads attach to active sites, 4) myosin head pivoting (stroke), 5) cross-bridge detachment occurs when ATP binds to myosin head so it leaves the active site, 6) myosin reactivation is when ATP is broken down to ADP so that the energy can be used to recock the myosin head

Question 73

Describe the role of ATP in contraction and relaxation specifically at the level of the sarcomere

Answer 73

1) ATP provides energy for the pivot 2) ATP also causes myosin heads to detach

Question 74

Requirements for muscle relaxation

Answer 74

contraction duration depends on: duration of neural stimulus, and number of free calcium ions in sarcoplasm Ca2+ concentrations fall (calcium pumped back into SR), Ca2+ detaches from troponin so then active sites are recovered by tropomyosin

Question 75

Tension

Answer 75

when muscles cells contract, they pull on the attached tendon fibers; tension is the pull, it needs energy because it's an active force

Question 76

Explain the two factors that determine the amount of tension produced by a whole skeletal muscle

Answer 76

1) fiber's resting length (#of cross-bridges) 2) frequency of stimulation (how often it receives AP): determines the amount of calcium in sarcoplasm

Question 77

Fiber's resting length

Answer 77

optimum overlap of thick + thin filaments during cross-bridging is 75-130%

Question 78

Motor unit

Answer 78

all muscle fibers have one single neuron attached to it, but one neuron can be attached to multiple muscles, which is a motor neuron part of a neuron unit

Question 79

Describe the relationship between motor unit size and muscle control

Answer 79

the size of the motor unit dictates how fine the control movement can be PRECISE control= 4-6 muscle fibers per neuron (i.e the eye) GENERAL control= 1,000-2,000 fibers (i.e the leg)

Question 80

Discuss energy production during resting, and moderate and peak levels of activity

Answer 80

Physical conditioning: alters muscle characteristics and fiber type Anaerobic activities: improved by frequent, brief, intensive workouts, which reduces fatigue time in fast fibers Aerobic activities: prolonged activity, improved by endurance training, training fast fibers to be more like intermediate fibers

Question 81

Atrophy

Answer 81

lack of muscle activity, so it reduces muscle size, tone, and power

Question 82

Explain calcium activation of myosin cross bridge in smooth muscle

Answer 82

the myofilaments don't have sarcomeres, so the thin filaments are connected to dense bodies on the plasma membrane calcium comes from pouch-like infolding called caveolae that contains extracellular fluid (no T-tubules and a less developed SR)

Question 83

Hyperplasia

Answer 83

smooth muscles ability to increase in cell number, so cell division basically

Question 84

Contraction steps for smooth muscle

Answer 84

1) calcium binds to calmodulin 2) calmodulin activates myosin light chain kinase, which phosphorylates myosin, activating it 3) contraction via the sliding filament mechanism 4) contraction ends when the calcium levels drop and the myosin is dephosphorylated (by an enzyme)

Question 85

Smooth muscle length-tension relationship

Answer 85

smooth muscle stretches more and generates more tension than skeletal muscle at comparable lengths, and it allows for tremendous changes in volume without becoming flabby when empty (think stomach and bladder)