final exam prep chp 1-12 Flashcards
(121 cards)
1
Q
define primary data
A
research info gathered directly from the original source
2
Q
define secondary data
A
research info that was originally gathered for a different purpose
3
Q
define penitentiary
A
19th century term for prisons based on a philosophy of penitence and punishment
4
Q
define rehabilitative philosophy
A
a belief that the right treatment can change a person’s attitudes, values and or behaviour
5
Q
define juvenile delinquent
A
a concept polarized in the victorian era, referring to children and youth who were considered problematic for a variety of reasons
6
Q
define reformatories
A
a 19th century term for juvenile prisons that were based on the belief in the ability of prisons to reform or change an individual
7
Q
define official crime
A
offender and offence data based on information collected for administrative purposes by justice agencies, such as police, courts, and correctional institutions
8
Q
define moral panic
A
refers to situations where people, groups, circumstances, or events are defined & perceived to be a threat to security and public order
9
Q
define marginalized
A
a condition in which people are excluded from mainstream society, can be cultural, political, economic, social or all 4
10
Q
define denied adulthood
A
refers to the notion that youth, because of their legalized dependency in western society, are prevented from attaining the things that many adults take for granted, such as the right to make decisions about their own lives & express views
11
Q
define demographics
A
the basic or vital statistics of a group, usually factors such as age, sex, ethnicity, marital status
12
Q
define penal populism
A
a situation where politicians propose or develop criminal justice policy that reflects public sentiment as presented through the media, rather than actual criminal activity or policy effectiveness
13
Q
define child savers
A
term used to refer to 19th century north american middle-class reformers who were instrumental in the creation of a separate system of justice for juveniles
14
Q
define parens patriae
A
a doctrine based on english common law that gives the state power to take on a parenting/guardian role for children
15
Q
define indictable
A
in the “canadian criminal code” refers to the offences that are of a serious nature; the maximum sentence is never less than 2 years
16
Q
define crime control model
A
a theoretical model representing a retributive set of beliefs and philosophies about crime and justice
17
Q
define modified justice model
A
a particular model of criminal or juvenile justice that is not in strict adherence to a pure justice philosophy
18
Q
define justice model
A
philosophy and orientation to criminal justice that posits the rule of law as the primary means of achieving a “just” justice system
19
Q
define reparation
A
in rj models, this involves offenders making amends in any of a variety of ways to their victims for the harm done by the offence
20
Q
define cycle of juvenile justice
A
refers to the tendency toward a never ending cycle of juvenile justice reform common in western society
21
Q
define social control agencies
A
usually government agencies mandated to preform various functions in the justice system, such as police, courts and correctional institutions
22
Q
define crime index
A
a stats canada categorization scheme for classifying police crime statistics as property, violent, and “other” index crimes
23
Q
define crime severity index
A
an index that assigns a weight to each offence based on the seriousness of the average sentence for that offence, and the proportion prison sentences
24
Q
define administrative charges
A
charges laid for behaviours that are not generally considered to be criminal ex: failure to appear in court
25
define self report survey
a criminology questionnaire survey in which individuals are asked to report on their involvement in criminal or delinquent activities
26
define victimization survey
a survey questionnaire that asks individuals whether they have been victimized over a particular time period and in what ways
27
define clearance rates
refers to statistics that indicate the rate at which police process criminal incidents as charged offences
28
define reliability
in behavioural science refers to the extent to which variable measurement and research findings can be or have been repeated
29
define validity
refers to the extent to which research variables have been measured in a way that is consistent with the theoretical concept, or what was intended
30
define telescoping
a problem faced by researchers conducting self report or victimization surveys. people tend to lump offences that may have occurred several years ago into something that occurred "last year"
31
define self fulfilling prophecy
an assumption, that, in being made, actually causes itself to become true
32
define racialized
a concept that allows an understanding of racism that goes beyond overt expressions and discriminatory actions of individuals
33
define ethnographic method
a research method that directly involves richly detailed descriptions and classifications of a group of ppl or behaviours
34
define longitudinal study
research method in which data on a group of people are collected over a number of time periods, rather than at only one point in their lives
35
define birth cohort
a group of people born in the same time period
36
define remedial solutions
programs designed to help overcome a weakness as opposed to correct a problem
37
cycle of violence
the theory that when children witness or experience violence, they are more likely to experience or initiate violence as they get older
38
define polyvictimization
refers to children who have experienced a number of victimizations and who exhibit traumatic symptomology
39
define empirical
knowledge based on observation or experience rather than theory/philosophy
40
define postmodernists
those who reject or challenge all that has been considered to be modern
41
define positivist
18th century philosophical theoretical and methodological perspective posting that only that which is observable through the scientific method is knowable
42
define classical school of criminology
school of thought that assumes people are rational beings who exercise free will in choosing criminal behaviour
43
define eugenics
based belief in genetic differences between groups that result in superior or inferior
44
define antisocial personality
people with traits of impulsivity, insensitivity and lack of remorse
45
define developmental theory
inadequate development or failure to progress to higher states explains criminal behaviour
46
define human ecology
examines relationship between people and their physical environment
47
define strain theory
blocked opportunities cause behavioural problems ex: can't achieve this, so rebel
48
define consensus theory
theory that assumes people are law abiding
49
define control theory
assumption that people will operate on basis of self interest unless constrained
50
define critical perspective on crime
assumption that structures of power and oppression are the source of crime (race, gender, class)
51
define social learning theory
attempts to explain crime through notions of modelling (rationalize crime) EX this person is rich they won't miss it
52
define interactional theory
social class, race and community affect social bond. delinquency has to be learned and reinforced.
53
define oppression
prolonged cruel or unjust treatment or control.
| laws, political parties etc that restrict rights
54
define life course theory
children undergo role and status changes as they grow older
55
define social capital theory
people possess varying degrees of valuable social goods (supportive family, good grades etc)
56
define life course persistent
type of offender who begins with biting and hating in childhood and whose behaviour escalades into adult offences like child abuse, assault etc
57
define adolescent limited
type of offender (majority) who don't have childhood history of childhood antisocial behaviour, engages in this behaviour inconsistently in adolescence when profitable to do so
58
define role theory
understand the process whereby individuals acquire and become committed to deviant roles ex: gangs
59
define power control theory
explains gender differences in delinquency by structure of family relations
60
define patriarchy
perpetuates and reinforces male dominance over women
61
define microscopic perspective
focuses on behaviour in small social settings rather than in context of large social structures
62
define androcentric
seemingly gender neutral ideas that are actually male centred
63
define racial profiling
when racial differences exist in law enforcement
64
define differential involvement
disproportionate minority police contract because of frequent criminal activity Ex; more likely to have police contact if aboriginal or black
65
define differential treatment
disproportionate minority police contact discriminatory inequalities in justice system
66
define alternative measures
variety of programs under YOA, divert youth from crime and the courts
67
define extrajudicial measures
under YCJA processing accused youth offenders by other means than the justice system
68
define extrajudicial sanctions
use of diversionary programs instead of justice system (rj)
69
define net widening
tendency for policies seemingly designed to reduce number of ppl in justice system but result in more state control
70
define interim release
provisions hat allow arrested individual t be released into the community under specific conditions (aka bail)
71
define pretrial detention
holding someone in remand before court appearance
72
define presumptive offence
under YCJA a serious violent offence more than 2 years
73
define deterrence
theory that certain and speedy punishment will prevent criminal behaviour
74
define conditional supervision order
requires person under supervision by particular conditions set by the court usually drug or alcohol related
75
define administrative segregation
solitary confinement
76
define multi systematic therapy
form of rehabilitation that focuses on the entire family not just on the individual
77
explain indeterminate sentenced vs determinate sentences
indeterminate- sentences that are not absolute determinate- sentences with stated minimum or maximum
78
define reverse discrimination
occurs when policies designed to end discrimination inadvertently create discrimination
79
define neoliberal
a form of gov't that prioritizes efficiency and cost effectiveness
80
define community change model
looks at specific ways in which a community can address inequalities and injustice. less focus on offenders
81
When was the juvenile delinquents act instilled
1908-1984
82
when was the young offenders act instilled?
1984-2003
83
when was the youth criminal justice act instilled?
2003-present
84
why did we switch from the YOA to the YCJA
concern with overuse of courts, incarceration in less serious cases, unfairness in sentencing, ineffective reintegration
85
what happened to youth processed under the juvenile delinquents act
- reform school that functioned like a jail
- separate children and adults
- no set mins/max for sentencing
- remained wards of the court until age 21
86
what were the criticisms of the juvenile delinquents act?
sexual behaviour isn't illegal for adults
no sentencing times
probation officer decides if child is reformed
tough on crime vs rehabilitative perspective butt heads
87
what are the 7 aims of the young offenders act?
accountability
protection of society
special needs (different from adults)
alternative measures (jail as last resort)
88
what was the primary purpose of the YCJA
protection of society first and then reintegration
89
List the 4 ways children who are made to feel powerless by the oppressive acts of adults adapt
passive acceptance- obedient out of fear
exercise of illegitimate coercive power- tries to out power adult
manipulation of peers- control of peers
retaliation- striking back at ppl/institutions who repress them
90
social bonds theory say that personal relationships keep us from committing crime, what are the 4 aspects of social bonds theory
attachment- social/cultural standard (relationship to parents)
commitment- social activities/institutions ex school
involvement- large amounts of time spent in socially approved activities reduces opportunity for deviance
belief- moral belief system, respect for social norms
91
what are the 5 madza defence mechanisms
1) denial of responsibility
2) denial of injury
3) denial of victim
4) condemnation of condemners
5) appeal to higher loyalties
92
explain the media's role in youth crime
amount of coverage on youth crime in the media is disproportionate to how much youth crime there is.
93
what was the colonial public issue around youth crime in canada
colonial administrators in the territories of canada worried about the freedom and independence that young people had compared to their counter parts in the old world
94
Which social control agencies report on youth crime?
gov't agencies including police, courts and corrections
95
What are the 2 sources of youth crime data?
media
| police (uniform crime reporting/court statistics/ self report surveys/victimization surveys)
96
what are clearance rates?
outline whether criminal incidents are processed as charged offences
97
What is the most common and least common youth crimes?
Property crime is the most common of all youth offending behaviour.
Violent offences are less common; however, they attract the most attention
Sexual assault cases are rare but are a concern.
Murder is rare among youth but also receives attention.
98
what is the violent crime debate?
Is violent youth crime a problem? Most youth crime is non-violent; cases of violent crime are rare for youth and yet we still ask the question. – believed to be higher than it really is based on media sensationalization and how statistics are interpreted
99
explain crime changes between the JDA, YOA and YCJA
We can examine crime rates as related to historic policies.
Higher crime rates under the YOA are likely the result of changes in legislation rather than increases in offending among youth.
The YCJA has resulted in increased diversion and lower charge rates.
Measures of severity add a new interpretive layer to statistics.
100
explain political agendas
Political agendas – Police services may change their strategies and may use crime statistics to make the case for more officers being hired. They may also use crime statistics to address how they do their jobs, i.e., if crime is perceived as more severe, they may see the need to “crack down” on certain types of offences.
101
what does the YCJA require from police officers in section 6 of the act?
requires police officers to consider if a warning is a sufficient response to a youth's behaviour. Issue a warning (formal or informal) and let the youth suspect go
Arrest the youth and hold in custody
Question the youth suspect
Write up a report and release the youth suspect
Charge the youth suspect with an offence
Release the youth suspect with conditions
Referral of the youth to a diversionary program or youth justice committee
Hold the youth suspect in detention for 24 hours until a “bail” hearing can be held
102
what are 2 extralegal factors affecting police discretion?
Race: Minority youth are more likely to be arrested and have a record.
Demeanour and Race: A suspect’s behaviour, attitude, and appearance determine the outcome. Police may perceive that all Blacks and Aboriginal youth are “difficult,” leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
103
which 2 minority groups are disproportionally high when it comes to carding and charging rates?
aboriginal
| blacks
104
what is it hard to research racial bias
The challenge, according to some researchers, in determining the existence and nature of racial discrimination is the lack of data.
It is argued that the lack of statistics on race kept by the justice system does not permit full examination of personnel practices
105
what is an example of a law that is aimed at controlling disadvantaged youth, but hurts youth more?
The bias is further perpetuated by legislation that is aimed at controlling the actions of disadvantaged youth. For example, loitering and panhandling laws are aimed at making streets feel “safer,” and the fallout is that poor youth are criminalized.
106
what are the gender differences in youth charging?
Gender differences in charging depend on age and the nature of the offence.
Older boys are more likely to be charged and go to court than older girls, but younger girls are more likely to be charged and go to court than younger boys.
107
what are the functions of youth justice committees
Give advice on extrajudicial measures
Facilitate reconciliation between offender and victims
Coordinate youth services and justice system
Advise on compliance
Give public information
108
describe 1 diversionary measure issue
Police accountability: concern that police discretion has enabled increased use of detention and the imposition of release conditions that are further criminalizing youth
Police discretionary decision-making appears to be contrary to the YCJA objective to reduce the use of custody
109
Is the amendment to Bill C-10 allowing the use of previous EJMs as a deciding factor for later pre-trial detention contrary to the notion of diversion?
A consequence of participation in EJM is the requirement that the youth take responsibility for his/her actions. The alternative, if the youth wishes to indicate non-involvement in the event, is going to court and pleading not guilty and being processed accordingly.
The changes to pre-trial detention imposed by Bill C-10 requiring record taking for EJMs so that they may be used to justify detention mean that the nature of diversion is tainted. Diversion in its origin suggested that a youth could avoid a label and further consequences if he or she complied with the diversionary measures required. These changes mean that despite compliance, previous interventions can be used against a youth in the future.
110
Fair does not mean same – Notions that all youth offenders should be treated the same in order to avoid discrimination leads to lack of fairness in the experiences of minority groups. Give an example:
Problem is that Aboriginal youth are subject to Eurocentric justice practices
Life experiences of minorities differ from rest of society
Social injustice prevails in the youth justice system when laws and policies do not recognize cultural differences between Natives and the principles of the Canadian justice system.
111
How is Aboriginal culture different from non-Aboriginal culture? Four core beliefs:
- Not burdening others with one’s problems
- Thinking about the present and future rather than to the past
- A focus on the collective rather than the individual
- An emphasis on healing and reconciliation
112
what is canada's feedback from the UNCRC
Canada has made limited progress in meeting the requirements of the UN to reduce inequities affecting children belonging to minorities and other groups of children in vulnerable situations.
Specifically, Canada must thoroughly examine the overrepresentation of Aboriginal and African-Canadian children in the youth criminal justice system.
113
where are we now in terms of youth crime? (generalized)
Crime rates are down.
Moral panics about youth crime and violence persist.
The media play a role in perpetuating the myths of youth crime.
The justice system is responsive to grassroots moral panics as well as to national and international standards.Programming initiatives are ever-changing and often based on models outside of Canada.
Responses to youth crime and delinquency are sometimes based on outside disciplines such as medical and community planning models.
The new science of crime prevention through risk assessment is taking hold.
The cost-effectiveness of programs is now being considered more closely.
114
what are some new ideas in youth justice?
Restorative justice is becoming an important part of our juvenile justice system.
Ontario program developed in 1974 – Victim Offender Reconciliation Program
Peacemaking circles
Sentencing circles/conferences
Transformative justice
Community change model
115
define peacemaking circles
Peacemaking circles – takes a macro perspective and operates under the presumption that the entire community is responsible for crime and rehabilitation/reintegration
116
What are some ongoing issues in the YCJA that fall under bill C-10
Under Bill C-10 there has been a significant shift toward a youth justice system that more closely resembles our adult system of justice. Recall that this conflicts with the UN declaration.
117
describe what can work and what doesn't work in juvenile justice?
can work-
```
developmental crime prevention
school safe initiatives
after school activities
situational crime prevention
therapeutic interventions including family therapy
mentoring
targeted policing of high risk youth and areas where crime is high
restorative justice
```
doesn't work-
```
curfews
scared straight programs
probation
incarceration
adult sentences
boot camps
0 tolerance policies
long term confinement
deterrence policies
```
118
what are some issues in youth crime?
Age and adult accountability: Contrary to UN specifications, Canada continues to have youth held in adult institutions in some cases.
Pretrial detention: continuing to increase with the YCJA
Release conditions: criminalize more youth because release conditions are too restrictive for teens to live up to
Parental rights/supports: The YCJA does not adequately support parents who are trying to be effective parents.
Cross-over kids: The justice system has failed to address the needs of those who start in the welfare system (under age 12) and become involved in the youth justice system.
119
list the aboriginal youth issues
Racism
Effects of colonialism
Cultural differences in meaningful justice
Suicide, addictions, and other social problems
Blurring/blending of child-welfare and youth justice system involvement (cross-over kids)
120
what is the cycle of juvenile justice?
moving from punishment to leniency back to punishment
121
list 3 solutions that are proactive rather than reactive in juvenile justice
Solution #1: restorative justice programs
Solution #2: anti-bullying programs
Solution #3: addressing the real sources of crime: victimized youth who will become youth criminals
