Final Exam Preparation Flashcards
1
Q
What is Power, the unit of measurement and the 2 formulas of power?
A
Power is the rate at which you do work. The unit measurement for power is watt.
Power is work over time
Or
Power is energy over time
2
Q
What is Horsepower?
A
the amount of work a horse can do in a minute.
1 horsepower = 746 watts of power.
3
Q
What is Mechanical advantage?
A
The factor by which it multiplies the force applied to the machine.
Mechanical advantage is output force over input force
4
Q
What is a Lever?
A
A liver is a solid bar that rotates, or turns, around a fixed point.
5
Q
What is a Fulcrum?
A
The fixed point where the liver rotates/turns/pivots on.
6
Q
What are Nucleotides?
A
A very long chain of nucleotides makes the DNA. Nucleotides hook together to make the sugar-phosphate backbone of the DNA.
Nucleotides are composed of three main parts:
- a phosphate group.
- a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose in DNA).
- a nitrogen-containing base.
7
Q
What are Alleles?
A
2 variants of each genes
8
Q
What are Sister chromatids?
A
two identical copies of a single replicated chromosome that are connected by a centromere.
9
Q
What is Chromatin?
A
loose mass of strands. They bound the proteins.
10
Q
What is DNA?
A
DNA is a helical molecule made of a very long chain of nucleotides.
11
Q
What is Human genome?
A
All of the human chromosomes and genes / All the genetic material in an organism.
12
Q
What is Cancer?
A
Cancer is the uncontrolled growth and division of cells—a failure in the regulation of the cell cycle.
13
Q
What are Carcinogens?
A
Substances and agents that are known to cause cancer are called carcinogens.
14
Q
What is Dominant and recessive?
A
A dominant trait is always expressed. If there is also one dominant trait, it will be expressed but a recessive trait can only be expressed when there are two of them.
15
Q
What is Homozygous and heterozygous?
A
Homozygous – code for the same trait, heterozygous – different traits
16
Q
What is Phenotype and genotype?
A
Phenotype is what is visible physically and genotype is what we cannot see.
17
Q
What are Gametes?
A
Gametes are sex cells (sperm and egg cell) that have half the number (n) of chromosomes.
18
Q
What is X and y chromosomes?
A
the 23rd pair- the sex chromosomes, is either an X chromosome and a Y chromosome. A copy of an X and a Y chromosome in each cell is associated with males, whereas females have two copies of X chromosomes in each cell.
19
Q
What are Autosomes?
A
The first 22 pairs of the chromosomes are autosomes and the 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes.
20
Q
What are Somatic and sex cells?
A
Somatic cells have a diploid number of chromosomes, which is 46 chromosomes, while sex cells have a haploid number of chromosomes, which is a total of 23 chromosomes. Somatic cells are the cells in the body other than sperm and egg cells and sex cells are the cells in the sperm and the egg cells.
21
Q
What is Haploid and diploid?
A
Haploid is a cell with n number of chromosomes whereas diploid is a cell that contains 2n number of chromosomes.
22
Q
What is Gene expression?
A
The process by which the DNA’s instructions are converted into a functional product, such as a protein, is called Gene expression.
23
Q
What is Mutation?
A
A permanent change in the sequence of DNA is known as a mutation.
24
Q
What is Genetic engineering?
A
It is the process in which a sequence of DNA from an organism is first isolated, then inserted into the DNA of another organism, changing that organism’s DNA.
25
What is cloning?
Cloning is a technique that uses technology to make copies
26
Compare and contrast: Sexual and asexual reproduction
⇒ Advantages/disadvantages of Asexual Reproduction
It allows for rapid populating.
It does not need mates, so does not require mobility.
It is friendly to the environment and handy in case of emergency. It hinders diversity.
⇒ Advantages/disadvantages of Sexual Reproduction
There is diversity in the genetic makeup of the individuals produced by sexual reproduction, since both the parents are involved, the newly formed individuals have the attributes of both. The species produced by sexual reproduction survive more than those produced by asexual reproduction. This is because genetic variations help them to adapt to different environments.
The diversity of life on earth is possible because of the combination of genetic materials from two parents.
Time consuming.
27
Compare and contrast: Acquired traits and inherited traits
Many of your traits may resemble those your parents have, including your hair colour, eye colour, and blood type. These characteristics are called inherited traits.
Some traits are acquired, which means the trait is developed during your lifetime. Acquired traits may be learned traits like speaking different languages or due to the influence of the environment you live in- your skin tone.
Some traits are both inherited and acquired. For example, skin colour has both an inherited component and an environmental one.
28
Compare and contrast: Cytokinesis in plants and animals
- Animal cells: The cells contract inwards, forming a cleavage furrow at the equator, pinching inwards, and dividing into daughter cells.
- Plant cells: a cell plate - made of the cell membrane and cell wall- forms, dividing the daughter cells.
29
Compare and contrast: DNA and RNA
- DNA Nucleotides are composed of three main parts:
• a phosphate group.
• a 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose in DNA).
• a nitrogen-containing base.
There are four kinds of “base pairs”
-- A is for Adenine - always pairs with T is for Thymine
-- G is for Guanine - always pairs with C is for Cytosine
- RNA Structure - RNA (Ribose nucleic acid) structure
• Single strand molecule
• Contains ribose sugar, NOT deoxyribose sugar.
• Phosphate group
• the base uracil (U) replaces the thymine (T) found in 4 nitrogen bases of the DNA
There are four kinds of “base pairs”
-- A is for Adenine - always pairs with U is for Uracil
-- G is for Guanine - always pairs with C is for Cytosine
30
Compare and contrast: Transcription and Translation
In Transcription, the information in the DNA of every cell is copied to produce a portable RNA transcript called messenger RNA (mRNA).
During Translation, these messages travel from where the DNA is in the cell nucleus to the ribosomes where they are ‘read’ to make specific proteins.
• Transcription - copying part of DNA into a complementary strand of RNA. Takes place in the nucleus of the cell.
1. RNA polymerase (enzyme) binds to DNA and unzips a portion of the strand at specific genes.
2. One side of the DNA is used to make a complementary RNA strand (wherever there is an adenine on the DNA strand, there will be uracil on the RNA strand)
Adenine – Uracil; Cytosine- Guanine
3. The transcribed mRNA moves to the cytoplasm.
• Translation- the decoding of the mRNA’s message into a protein; takes place in the cytoplasm on the ribosome.
1. mRNA attaches to the ribosome.
2. As each codon of the mRNA molecule moves through the ribosome, the proper amino acid is brought into the ribosome by tRNA, the anti-codon.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) attaches to the amino acid on one side and attaches to the mRNA ribosome on the other side.
• It is called the anticodon, as it has complementary base codes.
• The ribosome breaks the bonds that hold tRNA to amino acids and also releases tRNA off the ribosome.
4. The polypeptide chain continues until mRNA reads stop codon, completing the translation.
5. PRODUCT- PROTEIN!
31
What is frameshift mutation?
If a single base is deleted or inserted, - there can be huge effects on the organism, because this may cause a frameshift mutation.
If the reading frame is off by even one base, the resulting sequence will consist of an entirely different set of codons.
32
Compare and contrast: Scientific and customary definition of work
The scientific definition of work states that work is the use of force to move an object but the custom definition states that using any force/energy is work; ex: reading and thinking.
33
Compare and contrast: Relationship: work and power
Power is a measurement of how much work is done in a given time.
34
Compare and contreast: Kinetic energy and potential energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion whereas potential energy is stored energy depending on its position and shape.
35
Compare and contrast: Actual Mechanical advantage and ideal mechanical advantage
- Actual Mechanical Advantage: The actual mechanical advantage is the mechanical advantage that a machine provides in a real situation.
- Ideal Mechanical Advantage:
The ideal mechanical advantage is the mechanical advantage of a machine without friction.
The more efficient a machine is, the closer the actual mechanical advantage is to the ideal mechanical advantage.
36
What is selective breeding?
Selective breeding is the process of selecting and breeding a parent organism to pass on particular traits to the offspring.
37
Relationship with DNA (genes) and heredity
Heredity is the passing of Genes from parents to offspring.
38
Functions that genes serve
Genes code for proteins that are expressed as your traits; all your traits are described by these genes
39
Explain: Cell Size Limitations
Individual cells can grow in size but there are limits that cells can reach, when the cell divides into two smaller cells the ratio of the surface area to volume increases. Another limit on cell growth is the amount of information a cell needs from its DNA.
40
The three main checkpoints on the cell cycle
Whether the cell is big enough and has synthesized proteins necessary for DNA synthesis is assessed at the G1 checkpoint.
Proper chromosome duplication is assessed at the G2 checkpoint.
Attachment to a spindle fibre for equal division of the chromosome is assessed at the M checkpoint.
41
The different forms of asexual reproduction
- Binary fission: the simplest kind of asexual reproduction
- Budding: a process in which an organism develops tiny buds on its body each having the same genetic material as the parent cells.
- Fragmentation: fragmentation is where the parent body breaks into pieces which each develops into offspring - starfish
- Parthenogenesis: parthenogenesis is where a female organisms eggs develop into young without fertilization - some species of snake wasp
- Vegetative Reproduction: where is it take to production is where a parent produces offspring without fertilization – cutting of plants
42
Summarization of the patterns shown in Mendel's experiments with height in three steps.
Parent generation: Breeding of TT and tt
The first generation: produced all regular height plants in the ratio of 4:4. The t trait completely disappeared.
The second generation: Allowing the first-generation plants to self-pollinate resulted – 3⁄4 regular and 1⁄4 dwarf pea plants. (Ratio-3:1) The dwarf trait reappeared in the second-generation plants.
43
Three conclusions - Mendel
- Traits were passed down from one generation to the next generation.
- There must be two factors for each possible trait, one factor from each parent.
- Some traits could be masked by the other dominant traits.
44
Explain: the importance of meiosis
Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes and providing genetic variation in organisms.
45
Punnett square
A punnet square illustrates how the parent's alleles might combine in offspring. The punnet square has the key, genotype, and phenotype.
46
The three types of RNA und their functions.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) - copies DNA in the nucleus and carries instructions into the cytoplasm.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) - during the construction of a protein, tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosomes as specified by the coding in mRNA.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - where proteins are assembled; ribosomes are made up of several proteins and rRNA.
47
Protein Structure
- Proteins are made up of polypeptide chains.
- Polypeptides are made up of amino acids.
- Amino acids are made by codons.
- A codon consists of three consecutive nucleotides (that specify a single amino acid that is to be added to the polypeptide chain)
48
How can mutation be caused?
Errors can occur when DNA is copied.
Exposure to ultraviolet radiation or X-rays can damage DNA.
Both natural and human-made toxins, which are harmful chemicals can also damage DNA
Chemicals, such as those found in tobacco smoke, can be mutagens.
49
Mutations; three possible outcomes and effects
1. The mutation causes no effect. There are two sets of DNA in every cell, which means a pair of genes are coding for the same protein. Even if one gene is not working, the other may still code for enough of the protein to enable a cell to function normally.
2. The effect of a mutation is minor. A change in the genes that control the amount of melanin produced could affect not only how light or dark a person's skin is it could also affect eye or hair color the change, in this case, is a change in appearance only
3. The effect of mutation is great. The effect can be good, such as a plant having increased resistance to disease. Mutations become a mechanism for how species evolve.
Or if the effect is bad, it causes a genetic disorder or disease.
Only 5% of human DNA is in genes if a mutation occurs in a non-coding region of DNA, then the chances are that the mutation will have no effect. Such a mutation is neutral.
50
Genetic engineering; the three steps; risk and benefits
1. A sequence of DNA from an organism is isolated
2. Then Inserted into the DNA of another organism
3. The DNA of the organism is changed.
51
The 7 forms of energy
1. Chemical - fossil fuels, biomass, the food you eat
2. Mechanical (due to position) -a rock on top of a hill
3. Nuclear (atomic)- nuclear power plants
4. Radiant (light) - the light from a bulb, stars in the sky
5. Thermal (heat) - the heat from a light bulb, the warmth of a fire
6. Sound - a musical instrument
7. Electrical - lighting, computer, appliances
52
Explain: how do machine make work easier (3 ways with examples)
A machine does not decrease the amount of work that is done they only make work easier by changing:
- The size of the force needed to do the work. Ex of Changing Force: Steering Wheel and pliers
- The distance over which the work is applied. Ex of Changing Distance: Leaf rakes and hammers
- The direction in which the force is exerted. Ex of Changing the direction of the force. Claw ends of hammers and flagpole pulleys
53
Explain: Law of conservation of energy".
‘Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another’
As energy is transferred from one object to another and from one form to a different form, the total amount of energy will always remain the same. The total amount of energy never changes, as different forms of energy get involved in any process.
54
Mechanical Advantage with relation to input and out force
Mechanical Advantage is the ratio of output force (the force put out by the machined) to input force (the force put into the machine).
Mechanical Advantage > 1
• More Output Force / less Input Force. Examples: Door Knob; Can opener; a ramp
Mechanical Advantage < 1
• Less Output Force / more Input Force.
Examples: Hockey Stick; Rake; Paper Fan
Mechanical Advantage = 1
The output force and the input force are the same. Example: Rope System on a flagpole
55
What is Efficiency and what is the formula?
The more efficient a machine is the closer it is to the ideal machine's mechanical advantage.
Efficiency: Output Work / Input Work * 100
56
Explain: Simple Machines: The six types of Machines ( definitions)
- Lever: A lever is a solid bar that rotates, or turns, around a fixed point.
- Wheel and axle: A wheel and axle is made of a wheel attached to a shaft, or axle.
- Pulley: A pulley is wheel with a grooved rim and a rope or cable that rides in the groove.
- Inclined plane: a sloping surface.
- Wedge: A wedge has a thick and a thin end.
- Screw: A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder or cone to form a spiral.
57
Explain: Machine: input and output force; input and output distance
When you use a machine, you apply force to the machine. This force is called the input force.
The machine, in turn, applies force to an object. This force is called the output force.
The force you apply to the machine is applied over a given distance, called the input distance.
The force applied by the machine to the object is also applied over a distance, called the output distance.
58
Why a person with an allele for a particular trait may not have a phenotype that shows the trait?
That person may not have a phenotype that shows the trait because that trait must be recessive, and that person is heterozygous.
59
If you push a large rock as hard as you can, and the rock does not move, ___________________________
If you push a large rock as hard as you can, and the rock does not move, You use force but don't do any work on the rock.
60
You stand at the edge of a low diving board. If you stand on a higher diving board instead, you will ______
You stand at the edge of a low diving board. If you stand on a higher diving board instead, you will Increase a potential energy
61
A freestyle skier skis off a ramp and does a maneuver in midair. As he does his trick, he has ______
A freestyle skier skis off a ramp and does a maneuver in midair. As he does his trick, he has Both potential and kinetic energy
62
Using a ramp to lift an object _____
Using a ramp to lift an object Decreases the force required but lengthens the distance
63
Ali uses a screwdriver to drive a screw into a picture frame. The screws heads help him work by ________
Ali uses a screwdriver to drive a screw into a picture frame. The screws heads help him work by Decreasing the force, he applies to move the screw.
64
If you know the energy used buy an electric light bulb, you can calculate its power by ______
If you know the energy used buy an electric light bulb, you can calculate its power by multiplying the energy by the time
65
You do work on the ball by kicking it. The work you do on the ball _______
You do work on the ball by kicking it. The work you do on the ball increases the ball's energy.
66
The force that opposes the output of a machine is _____
The force that opposes the output of a machine is friction
67
A solid bar that turns around a fixed pulley and can multiply and or change the direction of the force
Lever
68
A type of inclined plane that is movable
Screw
69
Inclined plane with two sloping surfaces
Wedge
70
The ratio of the machines output force to input force
Mechanical Advantage
71
A grooved wheel with a rope that change the direction of the force
Pulley
72
If the Dolphin with a mass of 200kg is travelling 16m/s, what is the dolphin's kinetic energy?
Kinetic Energy: ½ mv2
| Kinetic energy: 25, 600 J
73
What is the gravitational potential energy of a 0.1 kg apple sitting on top of a 12.5 m flagpole?
GPE: mgh = J
GPE: 12.5 J
74
How high would you have to lift a 45kg weight to give it gravitational potential energy of 11,025j?
11,025 / 10 / 45 = 24.5
| 24.5 meters
75
An electrical charger uses 144J in 30s to charge a mobile phone. How much power did the charger use?
4.8 watts
76
Every 45 seconds, a ski delivers a group of skiers with a force of 1800N. The slope it travels is 250 m long. What is the lift's power?
10,000 watts of power
77
What can a machine do?
A machine can:
⁃ Increase the amount of force
⁃ Increase the distance
⁃ Change the direction of the force applied
78
How can you increase efficiency on machines?
You can increase the efficiency by using oil/grease on the machine.
79
How is potential energy lost while the ball bounces?
As the ball bounces, potential energy is turned into kinetic energy and then the kinetic energy is lost as the ball bounces multiple times due to gravity.
80
What is the unit of measurement of power, kinetic energy, and gravitational potential energy?
The unit of measurement of power is watt
The unit of measurement of kinetic energy and potential energy is joules.
