FINAL EXAM PT. 1 (up until 2nd midterm)

Question 1

Describe the legalistic perspective on crime

Answer 1

Crime is seen as human conduct that is in violation of the criminal laws of a state or federal government. Shortcoming is that it yields the moral high ground to powerful legislators. By making their own laws, powerful but immoral individuals can escape the label of “criminal”

Question 2

Describe the political perspective of crime.

Answer 2

The law serves the interest of those in political power and crime is seen as a threat to those in political power. Criminal laws do not necessarily bear notions of right and wrong.

Question 3

Describe the sociological perspective on crime.

Answer 3

Crime is antisocial behavior that violates both law and human relationships. It is disruptive to society, affects other people’s ability to live in peace and meet their needs, causes misery and suffering. Includes “white collar” and large-scale corporate wrongdoing.

Question 4

Describe the psychological perspective.

Answer 4

Crime is seen as social maladjustment where the offender can’t live in harmony with his environment. Crime is seen as problematic, maladaptive behavior.

Limitation: who defines what “problematic” is?

Question 5

Describe the consensus perspective

Answer 5

The consensus perspective is the notion that most memebers of society agree on what is right and wrong. Social institutiohns (church, government agencies, businesses, etc.) work together toward a common vission of a common good. Members of society generally agree that these laws are necessary.

Limitation: unable to participate in otherwise widespread agreement on values and behaviors.

Question 6

Describe the pluralist perspective.

Answer 6

Society consists of many diverse social groups. Different social groups have their own sets of beliefs, values, and interests. Despite these differences, laws are a useful means of dispute resolution. Peace-keeping tool, designed to be value-neutral.

Legislators, judges, lawyers, and police are assumed to trusteed to be unbiased and maintain a value-free system/laws.

Question 7

Describe the conflict perspective.

Answer 7

Conflict is seen as a fundamental aspect of social life and can never be fully resolved. Law is seen as a tool of the powerful. Those who control the laws have power and privilege and they strive to maintain that power. Society is made up of diverse groups with differences/distinctions between them. Those with more power have more, and they get to decide what is criminal and what isn’t. Conflict between these groups somtimes results in revolution.

Question 8

Social Problems Perspective vs. Social Responsibility

Answer 8

The social responsibility perspective is similiar to rational choice theory. It posits that individuals have a choice and can choose to commit crime or not. Individuals are responsible for their own behavior. Proponents of this view believe that punishment and individual rehabilitation is key to responding to crime.

The social problems perspective posits that crime is a manifestation of underlying social problems (poverty, discrimination, pervasive family violence, etc.) and the breakdown of traditional social institutions. They are proponents of a public health model, and government intervention to address root causes of crime.

Question 9

What is the difference between assault causing bodily harm and aggravated assault? Explain each, which one is the more serious offense, and how they are different.

Answer 9

Assault causing bodily harm is second degree assault and aggravated assault is in the third degree and is called aggravated because it may result in death and causes serious wounding, maiming, or disfigurement. Aggravated assault is more serious because second degree determines the injurty would not result in potential death.

Question 10

What is first degree murder? What violent acts are included under first degree murder?

Answer 10

First degree murder is culpable homicide that is planned or premeditated with the intent to kill someone. Examples of this include 1) infanticide 2). killing a peace officer 3) serial murder 4) mass murder

Question 11

What is the difference between first degree, second degree, and manslaughter?

Answer 11

First degree is murder that is premeditated and planned with the intent to kill another human being. Second degree murder is not planned ahead, but still includes the intent to kill; this can occur in a “moment of passion.” Manslaughter does not involve an intent or plan to kill but can be the result of reckless or impaired behavior, such as drinking and driving.

Question 12

List violent crimes.

Answer 12

Includes physical violence, e.g. murder, attempted murder, assault, sexual assault. Also includes crimes in which the person is physically overpowered, such as a kidnapping, abduction, or robbery.

Includes crimes in which the person feels threateneed and truly believes they could be physically harmed (criminal harassment, uttering threats, etc.)

Question 13

What is homicide? What is non-culpable homicide?

Answer 13

When a person, directly or indirectly, by any means, causes the death of a human being.

Non-culpable homicide: justifiable or excusable, e.g. police officer kills someone in the line of duty; also includes self-defense, defense of others, defense of property

Question 14

Define serial murder and mass murder.

Answer 14

Serial murder: involves the illegal killing of several victims in at least three separate events. There is a sequential pattern to it; it doesn’t happen all at once

Mass murder: the illegal killing of 4 or more victims at one location, within the same event.

Question 15

Define the 3 levels of sexual assault.

Answer 15

Defintion: broader than rape; is violence; lack of consent; doesn’t require penetration

Level 1: sexual assault (violates sexual integrity)

Level 2: causes bodily harm/may involve weapon/may involve threats

Level 3: Aggravated sexual assault - most serious; wounds, maims, disfigures, endangers life)

Question 16

List and define property crimes.

Answer 16

Property crimes are unlawful acts to gain property, with or without violence.

• Break and Enter (residential, business, other)
• Possession of stolen property
• Theft of motor vehicle
• Theft under $5000, theft over $5000
• Identity fraud, identity theft
• arson
• mischief (vandalism)

Question 17

List 3 reasons why someone might commit identity fraud.

Answer 17

1. Gain advantage for themselves or someone else
2. Obtain property, or an interest in a property
3. To cause disadvantage to th person being impersonated
4. To avoid arrest or prosecution
5. or to obstruct or defeat the course of justice

Question 18

What is identity theft?

Answer 18

Knowingly obtaining or possessing another person’s identity information with the intent to use it to commit an indictable offense that includes fraud, deceit, or falsehood as a component of the offense.

The person is intending to trick or deceive others about who they are to gain an illegal benefit for themselves, or to commit a criminal act.

Question 19

Describe the contributions of Hobbes, Locke, and Rosseau,

Answer 19

Hobbes: proposed the “social contract.” Give up some of your freedom to receive safety and security from the state. State was required to follow the rules or face punishment from the state.

Locke: behavior shaped by human experiences, we are not “born that way” further developed “social contract” and role of the government.

Rosseau: social contract; natural law (certain laws fundamental to human nature, ascertained through reason vs. human-made law)

Question 20

Describe the status quo of Becarria’s time and what he did to change this.

Answer 20

The status quo was to torture to get confessions, institutionalized terror, few safeguards for the accused.

      - capital punishment vis hanging, burnt stake
      - death penalty for robbery, burglary and minor offenses

He thought that people broke the law because they thought doing so would advance their own interests (rational self-interest)

Becarria believed that punishment should be swift, certain, proportionate, and seen by the public to deter not just the offender but others as well.

Question 21

Describe Bentham’s contribution to Classical Theory.

Answer 21

Shared the belief that punishment must be just strong enough to outweigh the pleasure or benefits of the crime. “Make it not worth it to do it.”

Believed that pain and pleasure were primary motivators for people and they would weigh the potential consequences with potential benefits.

For punishment to work, it needs to have swift and certain punishment proportionate to the crime and had the greatest potential to teach the offender and the general public not to commit that crime (now known as principle of “specific” and “general” deterrence)

Question 22

How does Becarria’s view affect how or court system works today?

Answer 22

• punishment should fit the crime, should be proportional to harm done to society
• extreme, cruel punishment was unjust and a violation of the social contract
• separate the lawmaker from the judges
• open, transparent court process
• jury of peers
• innocent til proven guilty
• role of judge: determine guilt and sentence according to the law. Equality, no favortism.

Question 23

Explain routine activities theory

Answer 23

• lifestyles of law-abiding people often have a predictable routine.
• motivated offender makes a pre-meditated calculated decision to commit a crime and weights consequences and benefits.
• lack of a capable guardian. “Target hardening” (human secuirty guards, barriers, lights)
• suitable target: unlocked home, commercial property without guards, etc.

Question 24

Explain situational crime theory

Answer 24

Situational opportunities that make crime easy to commit, plus the rational choice to commit a crime (i.e. shoplifting at a convenience store). Crime occurs more often with certain settings, and at certain times of the day.

1) situation provides an opportunity 2) offender takes advantage and makes a choice to commit the crime.

Question 25

Explain situational crime prevention

Answer 25

Involves a number of strategies for target hardening; i.e. make the place a less likely target Similar to strategies used in routine activities theory. Change the setting and reduce the crime.

Example: gated community to reduce uninvited access, locked doors, etc.

Question 26

List 3 limitations of rational choice theories

Answer 26

• little emphasis on other factors: e.g., impaired judgment from substances, strong emotions, or for other reasons
• the ability to think rationally is not consistent from person to person
• moral people have an inner moral compass and don’t offend even when an opportunity is there.

Question 27

List the 4 biological theories

Answer 27

Genetic and Constitutional theories that look at genetic factors and focus on physical features, body type, evolution and heredity

Body Chemistry theories that look at how external factors such as nutrition, hormones, diet, environmental contaminants affect body chemistry and behaviour

Sociobiology, which explores the biological basis for aggressive behaviour and “tribalism”

Biosocial theories, that explore how biological factors (age, gender, body type, personality, intelligence) are influenced by environmental factors

Question 28

List two strengths and two limitations of seeing criminality through a biological lens

Answer 28

2 strengths:

1. recognizing that certain factors such as age, gender, and intelligence do contribute to criminality
2. how hormones and nutrition can contribute to crime as well

Limitations

1. Inherited tendencies to commit crimes are not always empirically sound.
2. it fosters discrimination against marginalized and discriminated groups

Question 29

Crime prevention approach using a biological theory

Answer 29

Improving nutrition in a prison reduced criminal behavior

Question 30

What are the four components of moral behavior?

Answer 30

1. Moral sensitivity - the ability to see an ethical dilemma, including how our actions will affect others.
2. Moral judgment: the ability to reason correctly about what ‘ought’ to be done in a specific situation.
3. Moral motivation: a personal commitment to moral action, accepting responsibility for the outcome.
4. Moral character: a courageous persistence in spite of fatigue or temptations to take the easy way out.

Question 31

The Four-Way test

Answer 31

Do the right thing...
At the right time...
For the right reason...
In the right way
(essential component of good leadership)

Question 32

How was Jean Piaget’s study of boys playing marbles influential? What were the limitations?

Answer 32

Piaget studied boys playing marbles. He noticed that moral reasoning centered around justice.

Early childhood: someone else makes the rules (parents, authority figures) and you obey or you get in trouble. “Might is right.”

Discipline and structure were provided by the parents, and the degree to which the parents were angry indicated how bad the action was (the children only displayed guilt if they were caught)

Question 33

Describe morality of children aged 6-7

Answer 33

Children cannot discern intent of morality at this age.

Punishment for little children is a way that they restore harmony with parents. Morality is externally, not internally, motivated.

Question 34

10-12 year old morality (Piaget)

Answer 34

Favored reciprocal cause-and-effect punishment. Paid back aggression (eye for eye)

Could see the difference between accidents and malicious intent.

Observed that not all bad things were punished, and some good things went unrewarded.

Rules based on cooperation and mutual consent.

Saw that lying erodes trust and respect.

11-12 years old, preferred distributive justice: influenced by motives, age, experience, circumstances, and varying degrees of responsibility.

Question 35

Why was Kohlberg’s study important?

Answer 35

Became famous for his 6 stages of moral development. Conducted a 20 year old longitudinal study. Has so much good data behind it.

Question 36

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Answer 36

Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment - avoid getting in trouble
Stage 2: Individualism and exchange “What’s in it for me?” (reduction in pain, increase in pleasure
Stage 3: Good boy/ good girl - makes me look good / gain approval of others
Stage 4: Law & Order - Because that’s the rule. That’s the law.
Stage 5: Social contract - For the common good and welfare of others
Stage 6: Principled Conscience - personal integrity, no matter the price

Question 37

What did Moshe Blatt (1989) emphasize?

Answer 37

Worked with Kohlberg. He researched how schools and teachers could influence moral development.

Teacher led discussion groups of moral scenarios. Blatt found that students who were at higher levels were able to positively influence students at lower levels of moral reasoning.

When a student progressed from lower to higher levels, they didn’t tend to go backwards. This was also a significant finding that helped shape how offenders could be rehabilitated, through cognitive skills development.

Question 38

Carol Gilligan’s (student of Kohlberg) view of moral reasoning.

Answer 38

moral reasoning is based not only on justice but also on responsibility and care. Ethics of Care needs to be added. Ethics of justice (Piaget and Kohlberg) are not enough.

Question 39

Explain the head and heart of moral reasoning

Answer 39

• empathy for others strengthens, and is strengthened by, moral principle
• helps the person develop moral judgment that balances justice, fairness, rights of self and others, with responsibility and care for others
• it is often empathy that motivates others to “do the right thing” along with conscience (guided by principle)

Question 40

Name 3 risk factors that limit development of moral reasoning

Answer 40

• adverse childhood events (neglect, abuse, trauma, poor attachment)
• lack of positive adult role models and guidance
• weak attachment to school
• antisocial peers and antisocial adult influence
• lack of structure, supervision, nurture, care
• unresolved bullying or victimization
• antisocial attitudes/behaviors
• lack of concern for others, driven by self-interest

Question 41

Name 3 protective factors that support the development of moral reasoning

Answer 41

• stable, resilient parents, with good parenting methods
• strong attachment and bonds with family and school
• positive adult role models (mature moral reasoning)
• structure, supervision, nurture, care
• prosocial peer group
• spirituality/faith development
• opportunities to serve and help others
• child learns to be accountable and personally responsible
• child learns how to empathize and show care
• they see others standing up for what is right (moral courage)

Question 42

Define anti-social personality disorder and the characteristics that come with it in childhood and adolescence.

Answer 42

It involves a “pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood.”

Typical childhood signs: lying, stealing, truancy, resisting authority
Adolescence: unusually early or aggressive sexual behavior, excessive drinking, illicit use of drugs, continued delinquency

Question 43

Define the adult problematic behaviors of an antisocial personality

Answer 43

• inability to sustain work performance, hold down employment
• inability to function as a responsible parent
• failure to accept social norms with respect to lawful behavior
• lack of empathy/concern for others

Question 44

What underlies psychopathy?

Answer 44

The theory is that they do not learn from negative experiences because they don’t become anxious in situations that normally should trigger anxiety.

They also do not fear the negative consequences of their behavior and have an inability to learn from punishment.

Question 45

Name 8 traits of psychopathy

Answer 45

• shallow affect
• poor behavioral controls
• promiscuous sexual behavior
• lack of realistic, long-term goals
• impulsivity
• irresponsibility
• many short-term marital relationships
• criminal versatility

Question 46

Define criminogenic domains (Andrews & Bonta) and list 5.

Answer 46

Criminogenic domains are dynamic attributes of offenders that are associated with rates of recidivism (relapsing into criminal behavior).

1. Anti-social attitudes, beliefs, and values
2. anti-social personality, including low self-control
3. Anti-social associates and friends
4. Low levels of social achievement, including lack of educational, vocational, or financial achievement
5. family factors, including marital instability, a criminal family, and poor parenting skills
6. Substance abuse
7. A lack of pro-social pursuits.

Question 47

Those diagnosed with schizophrenia are 4-6 times more likely to commit a violent crime (true/false)

Answer 47

True (p. 195)

Question 48

Social structure theory defined

Answer 48

The pattern of social organization and the interrelationships among institutions characteristic of a society.

Question 49

Explain social disorganization. How is it like a “disease”? Explain how low cohesion relates to this as well.

Answer 49

• rapid immigration causes swift social change and caused social disorganization.
• views society as an organism and crime or deviance as a kind of disease.
• this theory believes that the root causes of crime and deviant behavior are related to these external factors, such as rapid social change, where there’s not enough for people to acclimatize and adjust to it, social conflict so conflict between groups or different stratas of society, lack of social consensus, so there isn’t homogeneity or collective agreement of what a good society looks like.
• low cohesion is typically an area that is highly transient with lots of rental properties, people do not know each other, there are higher rates of social disorder, crime, vandalism, property crime, poorly maintained homes (very typical of the inner-city climate of the US in the 20th century)

Question 50

Explain the concentric zones in the Chicago school of criminology.

Answer 50

Inner zones were highly transient with new imigrants, low social cohesion. More likely to find crime in high transition areas. Where they found social disorganization and poverty is where crime followed. Wasn’t a matter of when people moved out that crime left, those who moved in were motivated to commit crime.

• Residents of the inner zones would migrate to the outer zones as their economic situation improved
• Chicago School known for its focus on the impact of environment, as it looked at specific geographical areas
• “Urban transitional zones” typified by social disorganization, turmoil, lower property values, poverty, and lack of privacy
• Currently, some criminologists might use an ecological approach to indigenous reserves, Vancouver’s downtown eastside, the “strip” in Surrey

Question 51

Broken Windows theory

Answer 51

Broken Windows Thesis: became famous in New York, part of the cleanup and crime reduction strategy of the 1990’s. Paint over graffiti, repair broken windows, send message that people care and there is oversight. Reduce sense of neglect and #’s of distressed properties. Example: Subway systems (Tipping Point excerpt)
• Taps into idea that if nobody cares, and there is no maintenance, it will create permission for people to behave badly.
• What they did in subway system: epidemic of crime occurs.

Question 52

Elaborate on what criminology of place means.

Answer 52

Builds on the contributions of routine activities theory and situational crime prevention. In particular, it emphasizes the importance of geographic location and architectural features in terms of prevalence of victimization.

Such “hot spots” include places like neighborhoods, specific streets, and even individual houses or businesses.

Physical deterioration of buildings, graffiti, high rates of vandalism, “no one cares,” street disorder, prostitution, lack of oversight and supervision (lack of capable guardian)

Question 53

Explain crime prevention through environmental design

Answer 53

Crime prevention through environmental design looked at commercial properties and residential areas. Reduce bushes, increase lighting: basically creating a target-hardening approach.
Based on this notion that what is going on in the physical place is going to increase crime.

Question 54

What do social process theories propose?

Answer 54

They assert that criminal behavior is learned in interaction with others and that the socialization processes that occur as a result of group membership are the primary route through which learning occurs.

• Theories who support this believe that criminal behavior is learned from groups around you that you are socialized in. These include family, peer groups, and work associates.
• People with weak ties to prosocial groups and strong ties with antisocial groups will be socialized by those antisocial groups.

Question 55

Describe the main points of differential association theory

Answer 55

• Believed that all criminal behavior was learned behavior.
• People that the criminal is in relation with become “teachers” of crime.
• Attitudes and behaviors have to be unraveled and changed during jail.
• Interactions with others in which techniques of crime are taught. Those already criminal become “teachers” to others.
• People are most influenced by those close to them, and those important to them.
Family members, peers, friends often are these “teachers” because of the power and influence in this relationships.

Question 56

Describe the four key points of differential association theory (FDPI)

Answer 56

Frequency - the more often person A interacts with deviant group, the more often he is likely to learn their deviant behavior.

Duration - length of time that this person interacts with deviant people. Length of interactions influences the likelihood of learning that behavior.

Priority - how early in life did this person first encounter criminal behavior. Priority = the age of first encounter. For example, Rick grew up in home where he was exposed to criminal activity from birth. The earlier this happens, the greater the effects.

Intensity - How much this relationship is valued by the person and the intensity and saturation of criminal messaging that has impact on the person. If the techniques of crime are accompanied by antisocial attitudes and beliefs, and rewards from crime are evident, then the “student” will likely pick up the criminal behaviors from the “teacher.” Goes back to rational choice theory (are the consequences of the crime less than the benefits of the crime?)

Question 57

What does neutralization refer to?

Answer 57

• Social learning says that criminal behavior is learned through the mastery of techniques, values, and attitudes needed to commit criminal acts.
• “Neutralization” refers to the rationalizations and justifications that offenders use to allow themselves to go against conventional values and moral principles.
• Minimize impact on victim. “It’s okay, this business has insurance.

5 types of justifications
1. Denying responsibility
2. Denying injury
3. Denying the victim
4. Condemning the condemners.
Appealing to higher loyalties.

Question 58

Name some of the limitations of social learning theory.

Answer 58

• It discounts the impact of biology and inherited tendencies (FASD), and it discounts the impact of personality traits on how a person will interact with his/her environment.
• People are independent and individually motivated, so they may not always become criminals in the way the theory predicts. The theory doesn’t take into account those individual differences.
• How do you explain someone who becomes criminal when no one in their immediate sphere is criminal? (Rick’s sister, for example)

Question 59

Explain some of the main points of labelling theory

Answer 59

• Doesn’t explain how they first got on the criminal pathway, but explains what happens afterwards.
• The person who has done the offense has become a “bad” person, a “criminal.” Stigmatizing behavior ends up overtaking other aspects of their identity.
• From the community’s point of view, the individual who used to do bad or harmful things has now become a bad person, no longer redeemable
• It stigmatizes and labels the person as a criminal, which overtakes other aspects of their identity
• Contact with Criminal Justice System (CJS) can make things worse

Question 60

How can labelling have an impact on the offender?

Answer 60

• Label of “rulebreaker” can have huge impact on person’s future. May also increase criminal behavior of that person and reduce legitimate options, such as finding a place to live.
• Person realizes that no one wants them and cannot make it past barriers because of a society that rejects them.
• Only criminals or marginalized individuals like themselves will associate with them.
• Sense of rejection can increase negative behaviors (this is why media don’t name youth - they don’t want to stigmatize and label them when they still have time to change)
Only illegal opportunities remain to meet their needs, resulting in “secondary deviance”

Question 61

Explain why most people do the right thing most of the time.

Answer 61

• Attachment and a sense of belonging have a profound effect. People need strong attachment to prosocial institutions and groups to learn positive behaviors.
• Weak attachments to prosocial institutions and groups is a risk factor for offending.
• Those with low sense of belonging and attachment have less to lose.
People with strong attachment have more to lose: employment, status, marriage, reputation, self-respect, financial security, etc.

Question 62

Explain social bond theory by Hirschi (ACIB)

Answer 62

Successful socialization creates positive social bonds, characterized by:

1. Attachment: shared interests with others, emotionally connected, not alienated or marginalized.
2. Commitment: investment of time and effort put into prosocial activities with them, potential for loss of reward created by that activity.
3. Involvement: how much time spent in a meaningful role, in prosocial pursuits
4. Belief: shared values and morals vs. lack of respect for society’s rules.

This also goes back to some of rational choice theory.

• What will it cost them to lose that, if they commit a crime? What will they be throwing away?
• The costs of deviant behavior are measured by what they stand to lose.
For prosocial people, it usually isn’t worth it.

Question 63

Describe crime prevention through social development

Answer 63

• Invest in children and youth to help them develop the protective factors and developmental assets they need for healthy adulthood, as a mechanism to protect against the likelihood of criminal offending. Examples of this include kid’s club, youth groups, summer camps, etc.
  This includes building character and moral reasoning, as well as ensuring positive activity and relationships, healthy school attachments, graduation, and employability, etc.
• intervenetions that attempt to address the root causes of criminality, particularly among “at-risk” children and youth
• remove criminogenic “risk factors” by replacing or countering them with “protective factors” (positive influences and interventions that counteract risk factors)

Question 64

Briefly touch on some of the points of reintegrative shaming

Answer 64

• Stigmatizing and shaming people with damaging labels weakens/destroys the moral bond between the offender and the community.
• In contrast, reintegrative shaming acknowledges the wrongful act and the harm it caused, while also affirming the worth of the person who did it. They are valued, they are wanted. Community doesn’t see them as dispensable.

Community wants them to learn, to make amends, and be rehabilitated so they won’t re-offend, and return to their rightful place as a community member without feeling stigmatized or rejected.

Question 65

Informal social control crime prevention strategy

Answer 65

Programs often build on the principles of informal social control (*Travis Hirschi’s theory)
“The development, observance, and enforcement of local norms for appropriate public behaviour.” (p 42) Neighbourhood standards, values, and common agreement on social norms
Neighbours look out for one another,
they report suspicious activity
E.g. Neighbourhood Watch
E.g. Citizens Patrol