Final Exam: Spring 24 Flashcards by Riele Holbrook

how are the releasing hormones from the hypothalamus traveling to their target tissue?

Through the blood stream

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When a fertilized follicle, which forms an embryo, attaches to the endometrial surface of the uterus. What is the name of the hormone that is released from the developing endometrial surface that maintains the corpus luteum and is also used in the pregnancy urine test?
A. follicle stimulating hormone
B. progesterone
C. chorionic gonadotropin
D. prolactin
E. estradiol

C. chorionic gonadotropin

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TWO PARTS:

If one is at sea level, with a dry atmospheric air (at 21% O2), and the air pressure or barometric pressure, is the pressure within the atmosphere of earth, is 760 mm Hg, how to calculate Po2? Set up the equation.
Now that the general equation to calculate the Po2 say in the moist (wet air) of the respiratory structure? What is then modified by the equation above? Set up the equation

760 * 0.21
(760-18) * 0.21

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Figures show the leech ganglion and the ganglion in the sea snail aplysia.

State at least one apsect related to neurobiology that either model has provided

The leech has the long nerves running throughout its body, connecting making it interesting to study neurobiologically.

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Which system is more efficient for gas exchange from the circulation system to the respiratory system

A. countercurrent flow
B. concurrent flow

A. countercurrent flow

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What do type 2 alveolar cells in the lungs secrete?

A. estrogen
B. immune factors
C. pulmonary surfactant
D. red blood cells
E. testosterone

C. pulmonary surfactant

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What are pores of kohn

Small openings found in the walls of the alveoli in the lungs.

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When are external intercostal muscles used for a human?

A. for expiration
B. for inspiration

B. for inspiration

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Which direction of the bohr effect related to an increase of hemoglobins oxygen affinity in the oxygen saturation curve (y-axis) with Po2 (x-axis)?

A. right shift
B. left shift

B. left shift

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Start in the hypothalamus and diagram how T3/T4 are regulated and list feedback loops.

hypothalamus
anterior pituitary gland
thyroid gland
t3/t4 production

feedback loops:
-negative feedback 1
-negative feedback 2

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what are the hormones made (synthesized) in the anterior pituitary as compared to the posterior pituitary?

-growth hormone
-prolactin

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write out what A,B,C waves represent in relation to the human heart

A- atrial contraction (right atrium)
B- venous filling and atrial filling
C- ventricular systole, tricupsid valve bulges into the right atrium as ventricle contracts.

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Describe in detail what is the reasons for the “lub-dub-swish” sound when listening to an adult human heartbeat with a stethoscope on ones chest

Lub: (S1) the closure of the av valves
Dub: (S2) closure of the semilunar valves
Swish: (murmur) can be heard through narrow or leaky valves

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Place the following in the correct order of a RBC from entering the heart from the systemic venous side to the point where it leaves going out of the systemic circulation for a normal adult human:

right av valve
left atrium
aorta
right ventricle
pulmonary valve
pulmonary artery
lungs
aortic valve
right atrium
pulmonary vein
left av valve
left ventricles

Right Atrium
Right AV Valve (Tricuspid Valve)
Right Ventricle
Pulmonary Valve
Pulmonary Artery
Lungs
Pulmonary Vein
Left Atrium
Left AV Valve (Mitral Valve)
Left Ventricle
Aortic Valve
Aorta (Systemic Circulation)

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calculate the mean arterial pressure given the following: heart rate 200 bpm, pulse difference 90mmHg, diastolic pressure 60 mmHg, systolic pressure 150 mmHg, and hematocrit is 55%. sodium concentration in blood is 110 mM.

60 + (90/3) = 90
90/3 = 30

30 mmHg

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The cardiac contractile muscle does have a sarcomere banding pattern
TRUE or FALSE

True

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How many chambers does the frog heart have?

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. 5

C. 3

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What does the hormone erythropoietin do in humans?

Produced by the kidneys. regulates erythropoiesis, which is process of RBC production

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With respect to thermoregulation, most fishes are

A. regulators
B. conformers
C. warm-blooded
D. colder than their environment

B. Conformers

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Protein function and activity can be modified by

A. allosteric regulators
B. changes in electric fields
C. phosphorylation
D. changes in pH
E. all of the above

E. all of the above

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which of the following has a linear relationship between substrate concentration and rate of flux, even at high concentrations

A. carrier-mediate transport
B. passive transport through channels
C. passive diffusion through the membrane
D. active transport
E. all of the above

C. passive diffusion through the membrane

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A neuron at rest has a membrane potential of -65mV. If a sodium channel were to open, what would be the electrical force driving sodium ions through the channel if ENa= +50mV, EK=-70mV, and ECa=+150mV?

A. 250 mV
B. 70 mV
C. 115 mV
D. 65 mV
E. 20 mV

C. 115 mV

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What is the ability of the membrane to store charge by electrical means called?

A. membrane capacitance
B. membrane potential
C. membrane resistance
D. membrane conductance
E. membrane current

A. membrane capacitance

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During the depolarizing phase of the action potential, the voltage-gated Na+ channel is in which conformation?

A. closed but capable of opening
B. open, or activated
C. closed and not capable of opening
D. activation gate open; inactivation gate closed
E. activation gate closed; inactivation gate closed

B. Open, or activated

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The purpose of acetylcholinesterase is too A. break down the acetylcholine at synapses to limit its availability for activating its receptor B. Transfer the acetyl group of acetyl CoA to oxaloacetate in the tricarboxylic acid cycle C. import acetylcholine into synaptic vesicles in the nerve endings D. transfer the acetyl group of acetyl CoA to choline to generate acetylcholine

A. break down the acetylcholine at synapses to limit its availability for activating its receptor

When a multiple locations of a single postsynaptic cell fire repeatedly, generating a cumulative effect on postsynaptic membrane potential, that phenomenon is know as what type of summation? A. temporary B. temporal C. special D. spatial E. grand

D. spatial

sensory adaptation refers to... A. the ability of a receptor to become less responsive to a stimulus of a given intensity B. a phenomenon through which a receptor specialized for one sensory modality evolves to respond to another sensory modality C. the ability of receptors to become more sensitive to a stimulus as a consequence of repeated exposure D. none of the above

A. the ability of receptors to become less responsive to a stimulus of a given intensity

Cell bodies of ______ are found within the dorsal root ganglion A. motor neurons B. sensory neurons C. cortical neurons D. smooth muscle cells E. skeletal muscle cells

B. sensory neurons

How does hyperpolarization of a neuron membrane cause an ion channel to close on the down stroke of an action potential? A. ions bind to the channel protein, causing it to change shape B. alteration of the electric field across the membrane causes a region of the channel protein to change conformation C. a depolarization dependent change in plasma membrane fluidity allows the channel to open D. when depolarized, the membrane becomes more 'leaky', allowing uncharged molecules to enter the cell

B. alteration of the electric field across the membrane causes a region of the channel protein to change conformation

If the equilibrium potential for chloride ions if more negative to a cells resting membrane potential, and chloride specific channels in the plasma membrane are suddenly opened, what would most likely happen? A. sodium ions would leave the cell rapidly B. the membrane potential would become more negative C. chloride ions would leave the cell rapidly D. the membrane potential would not change E. the Na+/K+ ATPase pump would accelerate its action

B. the membrane potential would become more negative

The primary force driving fluids to leak from capillaries in skeletal muscle (on the arterial side of the capillary) into the interstitial tissue is: A. hydrostatic pressure of the blood B. hydrostatic pressure of the lymph C. colloid pressure of the blood

A. hydrostatic pressure of the blood

The region of the circulation with the least hydrostatic pressure is: A. aorta B. arteries C. capillaries D. veins E. vena cave

E. vena cave

The main pacemaker of the mammalian heart is normally the: A. the sa node B. the av node C. the purkinje system D. the bundle of his E. none of the above since it is purely neurogenic

D. the bundle of his

One of the pronounced cardiovascular responses to diving among birds and mammals is bradycardia TRUE or FALSE

TRUE

Which one of the lower vertebrates have two completely separated atria and two completely separated ventricles? A. turtles B. salamanders C. lungfish D. crocodiles E. frogs

D. crocodiles

Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) are: A. produced from serotonin B. inhibited by production by TSH C. a type of neurohormone D. made in the thyroid gland

D. made in the thyroid gland

During the follicular phase of the ovarian (menstrual cycle): A. estrogen levels predominate B. progesterone levels predominate C. estrogen and progesterone levels are elevated D. estrogen and progesterone levels are low E. none of the above

A. estrogen levels predominate

Which hormone is involved in the milk-ejection reflex during nursing in mammals? A. oxytocin B. prolactin PRL C. estradiol D. parathyroid hormone E. thyroxine

A. oxytocin

Which of the following endocrine glands is a modified sympathetic ganglia? A. adrenal cortex B. adrenal medulla C. pars nervosa D. parafollicular cells E. islets of langerhans

B. adrenal medulla

In insects, the hormones involved in development from larvave to pupa and/or metamorphosis to an adult are: A. ecdysone and juvenile hormone B. juvenile hormone and vitellin C. allostatin and testosterone D. precocenes and vetellogenin E. ecdysone and oxytocin

A. ecdysone and juvenile hormone

Which of the following capillary types is the least porous? A. continuous B. sinusoidal C. fenestrated D. splenic E. hepatic

A. continuous

Which of the following features distinguishes skeletal muscle cells from smooth muscle fibers? A. only skeletal muscle cells have myosin (thick filaments) B. only skeletal muscle cells have thin filaments C. only skeletal muscle cells have tropomyosin D. only smooth muscle cells require elevated cytoplasmic calcium for excitation contraction coupling E. only skeletal muscle cells have z lines

E. only skeletal muscle cells have z lines

Which one of the following hormones binds to receptors inside the cell? A. luteinizing hormones B. insulin C. triiodothyronine (steroid) D. parathyroid hormone E.antidiuretic hormone

C. triiodothyronine

The enzyme that converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone is A. 5a-reductase B. pregnenolone C. aromatase D. testosterone dihydrase E.androgen synthetase

A. 5a-reductase

Where is the antidiuretic hormone synthesized? A. in the neurons of the hypothalamus B. in the neurosecretory cells of the anterior pituitary C. in the glandular cells of the pars distalis D. in the glandular cells of the neurohypophysis E. in the epithelial cells of the pars nervosa

A. in the neurons of the hypothalamus

A condition related to excess growth hormone as an adult lead to a condition called: A. acromeglia B. klinefelters syndrome C. androgen insensitivity D. addisons disease E. dwarfism

A. acromeglia

Which hormone stimulates metamorphosis in amphibians? A. corticosterone B. thyroid hormone C. arginine vasotocin D. insulin E. juvenile hormone

B. thyroid hormone

Alpha and beta cells of the islets of landgerhans are regulated by A. tropic hormones from the adenohypophysis B. releasing hormones from the hypothalamus C. glucose concentrations in the blood D. inhibin E. islet stimulating hormone from the pituitary

C. glucose concentrations in the blood

Which hormone(s) combat hypoglycemia? A. glucocorticoids B. insulin C. growth hormone D. A and B are correct E. A and C are correct

E. A and C are correct

What primary hormone is released from the corpus luteum?

progesterone

Which cell synthesizes androgens in the testis? A. thecal cells B. leydig cells C. principal cells D. sertoli cells E. granulosal cells

B. leydig cells

During early pregnancy, which hormone maintains the corpus luteum by taking over the function of the luteinizing hormone? A. follicle stimulating hormone B. progesterone C. chorionic gonadotropin D. prolactin E. estradiol

C. chorionic gonadotropin

Specialized cardiac muscle cells that transmit action potentials from the atrioventricular node to the apex of the ventricles is the A. pacemaker cells B. bundle of his C. tricupsid fibers D. purkinje fibers E. sinoatrial cells

B. bundle of his

Which of the following blood vessels have valves? A. arteries B. arterioles C. capillaries D. veins E. All of the above are correct

D. veins

A condition, such as elephantiasis, where severe edema occurs is most closely associated with which of the following? A. low hydrostoic pressure in the veins B. very high colloid osmotic pressure in the capillary C. blockage of the lymphatic system so lymph can not flow D. an over production of NO locally producing vasodilatation E. active use of skeletal muscle inhibiting lymph flow

C. blockage of the lymphatic system so lymph can not flow

What kind of receptor classification are the receptors on the human heart that would be activated by transmitter released by the vagal (x cranial) nerve? A. nicotinic B. muscarinic C. norepinephrine D. glutaminergic E. GABA-nergic

B. muscarinic

Which of the following in skeletal muscle shortens during normal physiological muscle contraction A. a-band B. i-band C. actin D. m-line E. z-disk

B. i-band

In general, slow oxidative muscle fibers have _______ numbers of mitochondria than fast glycolytic fibers A. greater B. fewer

A. greater

Which hormone inhibits the development of the female reproductive system in embryonic males? A. inhibin B. testosterone C. dihydrotestosterone D. anti-mullerian hormone E. interstitial cell stimulating hormone

D. anti-mullerian hormone

Which of the following creates a 'volume reservoir' within the circulatory system? A. arteries B. capillaries C. veins D. lymph vessels E. valves

B. capillaries

What is the pulse pressure (PP) given the following: systolic pressure (SP) = 100 diastolic pressure (DP) = 40 A. 140 B. 80 C. 60 D. 160 E. 20

C. 60 100-40 = 60

What part of the tubule reabsorbs the majority of glucose and water from the glomerular filtrate? A. proximal tubule B. distal tubule C. thick descending limb of the loop of henle D. thick ascending limb of the loop of henle E. thin limb of the loop of henle

A. proximal tubule

Which if the following forms a countercurrent exchange system in the kidney medulla region? A. the main renal artery B. the renal vein leaving the kidney C. vasa recta D. peritubular capillary network around the distal tubule

C. vasa recta

Which of the following is a very low in permeability to water yet permeable to salt? A. proximal convoluted tubule B. distal convoluted tubule C. descending limb of the loop of henle D. thick ascending limb of the loop of henle E. collecting tubules

D. thick ascending limb of the loop of henle

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) A. directly alters the rate of filtration in bowmans capsule B. increases secretion in the distal convoluted tubule C. stimulates formation of water channels in the collecting ducts for water to pass into the interstium D. increases water reabsorption in the descending loop of henle E. decreases salt reabsorption in the ascending loop of henle

C. ADH stimulates the formation of water channels in the collecting ducts, allowing water to pass from the tubular fluid into the interstitium, thereby increasing water reabsorption.

Which is the direct function of the renin? A. conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotension 1 B. conversion of angiotension 1 to angiotension 2 C. release of aldosterone D. stimulation of ADH synthesis E. vasoconstriction of arterioles

A. conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotension 1

Which of the following enter the duodenum? A. pancreatic secretions B. bile C. gastric (stomach) contents D. A and B are correct E. A, B, and C are correct

E. A, B, and C are correct

The primary site of absorption in the digestive system is the A. stomach B. small intestine C. colon D. esophagus E. mouth

B. small intestine

The brush border (microvilli) of the small intestine epithelial cells is responsible for digestion and absorption of food substances by which of the following mechanisms? A. the microvilli are impermeable to end products of digestion B. by supplying digestive enzymes and specific carriers for membrane transport C. these microvilli only secret substances and have no role in absorption D. by breaking food into particles into smaller sizes by 'brushing' action

B. By supplying digestive enzymes and specific carriers for membrane transport.

Which of the following breakfasts would result in the most bile to be released into the intestine? A. toast, orange juice, and coffee B. black coffee C. fried eggs, bacon from a fatty pig, hash browns D. a bowl of cereal with skim milk E. boiled egg, toast, and juice

C. Fried eggs, bacon from a fatty pig, hash browns.

Which part of the digestive system has the lowest pH? A. esophagus B. stomach C. pancreas D. small intestine E. large intestine

B. stomach

The sympathetic system normally increases motility of the gastrointestinal tract TRUE or FALSE

False

Urine produced by the malpighian tubules flow into which of the following structures? A. bladder B. gastrointestinal tract C. ureter D. interstitial space E. vasa recta

B. gastrointestinal tract

How is it that some sea birds, like a sea gull, can drink sea water and still regulate salt balance? A. by use of the malpighian tubules B. by using the very long proximal tubules to concentrate urine C. by the use of a salt gland that can secrete salt D. by making uric acid E. by high evaporation during flight

C. by the use of a salt gland that can secrete salt

Which of the three following nitrogenous waste products eliminates the most nitrogen molecules A. ammonia B. uric acid C. urea

A. ammonia

Which aquatic animals would have normally a higher sodium concentration in their extracellular fluid? A. fresh water animals B. salt water animals

B. saltwater animals

If the thermal set point of a mammal, held in a cold room, is raised, which of the following statements are likely to be true 1. the blood vessels in the skin would tend to vasodilate 2. metabolism would likely increase 3. oxygen consumption would tend to increase 4. ATP production within cells would tend to decrease 5. shivering would not likely occur A. only 1 is correct B. only 4 is correct C. both 2 and 3 would occur D. 2 and 5 are likely true E. none of the choices are likely to occur

D. 2 and 5 are likely true

Describe how bacteria in the GI system of a mammal can be beneficial as well as a cost to the whole animal.

Bacteria in the gastrointestinal (GI) system of mammals can be beneficial by aiding in the digestion of complex carbohydrates and synthesizing essential vitamins. However, their overgrowth or imbalance can lead to gastrointestinal disorders and immune system dysregulation, imposing a cost on the overall health of the animal.

Describe a cellular process that some insects use to avoid freezing when their external environment is below freezing

Insects avoid freezing in sub-zero temperatures through a cellular process known as supercooling, which lowers the freezing point of their bodily fluids by removing ice nucleators and producing antifreeze compounds. This enables them to remain in a liquid state even in freezing conditions, preventing cellular damage from ice formation and allowing them to survive in cold environments.

Describe how triglycerides are absorbed by your intestine and get into the blood stream from the chyme in the lumen

Triglycerides in the small intestine are broken down into fatty acids and monoglycerides by pancreatic lipase and emulsified by bile salts. These products are absorbed by enterocytes, reassembled into triglycerides, and packaged into chylomicrons, which are then transported via the lymphatic system into the bloodstream for distribution to tissues.

What hormone stimulates the parietal cells to secrete the main compound they are known for? What is the compound that they secrete?

Gastrin and hydrochloric acid (HCl).

It has been estimated that about 10 liters of CO2 is produced per day in the intestine of humans by bacterial processes and that only about 800 milliliters of this gas is expelled as flatulence (or gas out of the anus). The remaining 9.2 liters of gas crosses the intestine into the interstitial space. Describe the likely ways this gas volume is regulated and the effects on the pH if this gas production is increased. Describe some specific mechanisms how the level of CO2 is monitored in the blood and regulated.

Gas volume in the intestine is regulated by factors such as bacterial fermentation rate, gut motility, and gut microbiota composition. Increased gas production can result from higher intake of fermentable carbohydrates or alterations in gut microbiota. Excess CO2 produced in the intestine can potentially lower intestinal pH by forming carbonic acid when combined with water. To maintain blood CO2 levels within a narrow range, the body utilizes chemoreceptors in the brainstem to regulate respiratory rate and depth, as well as the bicarbonate buffer system to neutralize excess acids.

Draw a nephron and label the main regions (include: distal tubule, proximal tubule, descending and ascending loops of Henle, as well as the collecting duct). Then list the major action that occurs in each one of these regions in relation to salt and water balance and production of urine.

1. glomerulus 2. proximal tubule 3. descending loop of henle 4. ascending loop of henle 5. distal tubule 6. collecting duct

During the follicular phase of the ovarian (menstrual) cycle A. estrogen levels predominate B. progesterone levels predominate C. estrogen and progesterone levels are elevated D. estrogen and progesterone levels are low E. none of the above apply

A. estrogen levels predominate

Which of the following hormones is involved in growth, water/electrolyte balance and reproductive functions across a diversity of vertebrates A. growth hormone GH B. prolactin PRL C. mineralcorticoids D. antidiuretic hormone ADH E. follicle stimulating hormone FSH

C. Mineralcorticoids.

The force driving fluids to leak from capillaries into the interstitial tissue is: A. osmotic pressure of the blood B. osmotic pressure of the interstitial tissues C. hydrostatic pressure of the blood D. hydrostatic pressure of the lymp E. colloid pressure of the blood

C. hydrostatic pressure of the blood

Compared to adult hemoglobin, fetal hemoglobin has A. beta and gamma chains B. higher oxygen affinity C. higher oxygen capacity D. more heme groups E. both C and D are correct

B. higher oxygen affinity

What is the main role of the t-tubule A. to store calcium for muscle contraction B. to store the acetylcholinesterase for inactivation of acetylcholine C. to re-uptake the calcium after contraction D. to conduct the depolarization wave along it length into deep layers of the muscle E. to hold the postsynaptic receptors in place so that they will stay in the synaptic cleft

D. to conduct the depolarization wave along it length into deep layers of the muscle

What mechanism best describes the effect of enhancing visual contrast A. divergence in neural paths B. disinhibition C. facilitation D. accommodation E. lateral inhibition

E. lateral inhibition

What kind of receptor classification do the receptors at the vertebrate neuromuscular junction come under? A. nicotinic B. muscarinic C. norepinephrinic D. glutaminergic E. GABA-nergic

A. nicotinic

Which of the following is the correct sequence of events in photo-transduction in a vertebrate rod cell in the retina? A. light directly activates the sodium channels to open allowing the rod to become depolarized B. light activates rhodopsin by photo-isomerization which results in activation of phosphodiesterate that hydrolyzes cyclic GMP to plain GMP. This results in opening of the sodium channel and depolarization of the rod cell. C. light activates rhodopsin by photo-isomerization, which results in activation of phosphodiesterase that hydrolizes cyclic GMP to plain GMP. This results in closing of the sodium channel and hyperpolarization of the rod cell. D. light will activate the dark current by closing sodium channels causing the cell to hyperpolarize E. light stimulates the sodium/potassium pump to pump sodium out of the cell causing the cell to hyperpolarize

C. Light activates rhodopsin by photo-isomerization, which results in activation of phosphodiesterase that hydrolyzes cyclic GMP to plain GMP. This results in closing of the sodium channel and hyperpolarization of the rod cell.

In genera, slow oxidative (type 1) muscle fibers have ______ numbers of mitochondria than fast glycolytic (type 2). GREATER or FEWER

Greater

Which of the following statements best describes aspects of muscle contraction A. that calcium ions have no role in the development of muscle tension B. that ATP is needed for muscle relaxation C. calcium around the troponin C is needed for the muscle to relax after a contraction D. that ATP is needed for initiation of muscle contraction from a resting state

D. that ATP is needed for initiation of muscle contraction from a resting state

A quantum of response measured in a postsynaptic cell refers to a..... A. summated electrical response due to many vesicles being released from the presynaptic neuron B. a measure of current needed to elicit an action potential C. the amount of electrical response to hyperpolarize a cell below its resting membrane potential D. the response measured in a postsynaptic cell due to the release of a single vesicle from a presynaptic cell E. none of the above

D. The response measured in a postsynaptic cell due to the release of a single vesicle from a presynaptic cell.

The basic process to transduce a mechanical stimulate ion to an electrical event in a tactile sensory neuron is by.... A. a chemical binding to a receptor in the sensory ending and stimulating channels to open via second messenger cascades` B. the surrounding heat generated by the stimulus rubbing on the tactile neuron C. the opening of stretch-activated ionic channels within the sensory ending D. an unknown process E. causing the sensory endings to break off and that depolarizes the cell. afterwards the cell can quickly repair the membrane damage in time for the next stimulus

C. The opening of stretch-activated ionic channels within the sensory ending.

Which of the following definitions would best describe the concept of homeostasis in relation to animal function? A. regulation of biological events by positive feedback B. the ability of animals to control their immediate external environment C. the ability of animals not to regulate any internal functions D. process involved in the maintenance of constancy of the internal milieu (or environment) of the body

D. Process involved in the maintenance of constancy of the internal milieu (or environment) of the body.

Decreasing the degree of saturation of the lipid tails for lipids in a membrane, will result in the membrane having an increase in its fluidity TRUE or FALSE

True

Which of the following ions would you expect to find in higher concentrations than others inside most cells? A. Na+ B. K+ C. Ca 2+ D. Cl- E. I-

B. K+ (Potassium).

In most cells, the resting membrane potential is negative TRUE or FALSE

True

The potassium channels that are primarily responsible for repolarization of the plasma membrane after the initiation of an action potential are activated by A. cold temperature B. epinephrine C. cAMP D. membrane depolarization E. membrane hyperpolarization

D. Membrane depolarization.

With respect to cellular metabolism A. citric acid cycle takes place in the cytosol B. glycolysis requires oxygen for the reactions to take place C. the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain reactions only take place under anaerobic conditions D. the reactions of the electron transport chain take place in the mitochondria E. the reactions for the citric acid cycle take place in the nucleus

D. The reactions of the electron transport chain take place in the mitochondria.

In the complete metabolism of one glucose molecule, in the presence of oxygen, most ATP molecules are produced in which one of the following series of reactions or cycles listed A. citric acid cycle and electron transport chain B. glycolysis C. the steps of A and B above both produce the same amount of ATP, therefore they are equal

A. Citric acid cycle and electron transport chain.

In humans a demylenating disease can cause many problems with regulation of muscle coordination. Why is it that the early onset of the disease there is not so many problems but as the disease progresses muscle controls worse and sensory input is lost in some cases. (Please explain the detail of the problem at the cell level or surrounding cell environment and why the problems come about)

In the early stages of a demyelinating disease, such as multiple sclerosis, the body can compensate for the loss of myelin by utilizing alternative neural pathways and mechanisms. However, as the disease progresses and more myelin is lost, the ability to effectively transmit nerve impulses is compromised. This leads to impaired muscle coordination and control, as well as the loss of sensory input, due to disruptions in the propagation of action potentials along demyelinated nerve fibers. Additionally, the loss of myelin can result in inflammation and damage to the surrounding neural tissue, further exacerbating the neurological deficits experienced by individuals with the disease.

How does calcium reuptake regulate the speed of muscle contraction in skeletal muscle (think of the extreme examples like in a shaker muscle)? DETAILS of WHY

In skeletal muscle, calcium reuptake regulates the speed of muscle contraction by influencing the duration of calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). In extreme examples, such as in a shaker muscle where calcium reuptake is impaired, excessive and prolonged calcium release from the SR occurs, leading to sustained muscle contractions and tremors. This disruption in calcium regulation results in hyperexcitability of the muscle fibers, causing uncontrolled and rapid contractions characteristic of conditions like tetany.

List at least 1 hormone from the posterior pituitary and 1 from the anterior pituitary and 1 from the hypothalamus and their role

Posterior Pituitary: oxytocin - involved in various physiological processes, including uterine contractions during childbirth, milk ejection during breastfeeding, and regulation of social bonding and behavior. Anterior Pituitary: ACTH - stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol, a stress hormone involved in the regulation of metabolism, immune response, and stress response. Hypothalamus: GnRH - egulates the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary. FSH and LH, in turn, regulate the reproductive functions of the gonads (ovaries in females and testes in males), including the growth and maturation of follicles in the ovaries and the production of sperm in the testes.

Describe a vascular or respiratory anatomical process that can be used to aid a mammal to withstand being exposed to cold or hot external temperatures.

One anatomical process that mammals use to withstand exposure to cold or hot external temperatures is vasoconstriction or vasodilation of blood vessels. In cold temperatures, vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to the skin, minimizing heat loss and conserving body heat. Conversely, in hot temperatures, vasodilation increases blood flow to the skin, allowing heat to be dissipated through the skin's surface via radiation and convection, thus aiding in cooling the body.

Final Exam: Spring 24 Flashcards

Includes all past exams and quizzes