Final Exam Study Guide Flashcards
1
Q
What is random sampling and what is random assignment? Why are they important?
A
RANDOM SAMPLING:
A technique in which each person is equally likely to be selected.
* Removes all hints of bias by (ideally) including all parties.
RANDOM ASSIGNMENT:
Randomly sorting the random sample into control and experimental groups.
* HELPS MITIGATE CONGOUNDING VARIABLES.
2
Q
What is operationalization?
A
How you will measure a variable
(ex: What is hunger? -> “How hungry are you on a scale of 0-3)
3
Q
What is the logic of the experimental method?
A
Experiments allow us to make causal conclusions (using independent and dependent variables!)
4
Q
What are the 5 parts of the neuron?
A
1: Dendrites
2: Cell Body (soma)
3: Axon
4: Myelin Sheath
5: Terminal Branches of the Axon
5
Q
What is the function of the Dendrites?
A
To receive information from other neurons and send it to the cell body
6
Q
What is the function of the Cell Body (soma)?
A
Acts as energy center of the cell (contains nucleus)
7
Q
What is the function of the Axon?
A
Carries electrical impulses to that the brain can send signals and communicate with the rest of the body
8
Q
What is the function of the Myelin Sheath?
A
Allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells. If myelin is damaged, these impulses slow down.
9
Q
What is the function of the Terminal Branches of the Axon?
A
Change electrical impulses or action potentials within a neuron into chemical messages in the form of neurotransmitters.
10
Q
What does action potential/neural impulse mean?
A
- ALL OR NOTHING flow of information that travels through axon caused by “Depolarization”
- Occurs when (excitatory signals - inhibitory signals <= certain threshold)
11
Q
What do we mean when we say that the structure of the brain is contralateral?
A
Opposite-Sided: the left side of the brain is responsible for controlling a number of sensory and motor functions of the right side of the body, and vice versa.
12
Q
What is selective attention?
A
When awareness is focused on a specific aspect of your conscious experience
- (focusing your attention on something automatically decreases attention to irrelevant things)
13
Q
What are the two tracks of our dual-processing mind?
A
1: Conscious Track (the “sequential processing”)
- Deliberate concentration, action, or choice
2: Unconscious Track (the “parallel processing”)
- Automatic thoughts/feelings behind the scene
14
Q
What is heritability?
A
The percentage of VARIATION of traits due to genes (NOT how genetic a certain trait is)
THE EXTENT TO WHICH VARIATION CAN BE ATTRIBUTED TO GENES
- May vary depending on which populations and environments are studied
15
Q
When does heritability increase?
A
- Heritability INCREASES when:
1) The environment becomes more and more controlled (differences in behavioral traits become more tied to genes as the environment becomes more uniform)
2) Genetic variation increases (wider variety of phenotypes)
16
Q
What are the differences between Collectivism and Individualism?
A
Collectivism:
- the self is part of a GROUP
- the self is FLUID across different situations
- personal DUTIES and group well-being are important
(Japan, Korea, Taiwan)
Individualism:
- the self is UNIQUE
- the self is STABLE across different situations
- personal GOALS and opportunities to express oneself are important
(USA, Canada, Germany)
17
Q
How are sex and gender similar and different? Which definition does the proclamation on the family refer to?
A
Sex: the BIOLOGICALLY INFLUENCED characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman. (NATURE)
Gender: the physical, behavioral, and SOCIALLY INFLUENCED characteristics that are culturally associated with male and female roles and identity. (NURTURE)
- The Family Proclamation refers to SEX but uses the word gender.
18
Q
What is Piaget’s Stage Theory of Development? How does this theory explain cognitive development?
A
4 Stages of (NATURal) Development
Jean Piaget’s ATTEMPT TO CATEGORIZE THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITION as children constantly try to make sense of the world.
* Cognitive development is shaped by the errors we make (we learn from failure)
19
Q
What are the 4 stages of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development?
A
- Sensorimotor Stage
- PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
- Concrete-Operational Stage
- Formal Operational Stage
20
Q
What are the attachment styles we discussed in class? How can we discern between each style?
A
Secure Attachment
- Explore environment happily when caregiver is present
- Show distress when caregiver leaves
- Caregivers are responsive and attentive
(about 60% of children)
Insecure Attachment
- Cling to caregiver (do not explore) when she is present
- Caregivers only attend to children when they wanted to but ignored child otherwise
21
Q
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
A
Sensation usually involves sensing the existence of a stimulus, whereas perceptual systems involve the determination of what a stimulus is.
22
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
PAIRING OF TWO STIMULI that eventually changes behavior
23
Q
What are the Components of Classical Conditioning?
A
- Unconditioned Stimulus (US): automatically produces a response before conditioning
(ex: food) - Unconditioned Response (UR): automatic behavioral response to US
(ex: salivating in response to food) - Neutral Stimulus (NS)-> Conditional Stimulus (CS): neutral stimulus is paired with the US
(ex: ringing bell when food is presented) - Conditioned Response (CR): new behavior in response to neutral stimulus (which is now CS)
(ex: salivating in response to bell without food)
24
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
Formation of new active behaviors by using
LAW OF EFFECT: consequences of behavior will change future behavior–make behavior more or less likely to happen
(“If result is good, I do it again. If result is bad, I don’t”)
- Operant Conditioning leads to more complex behavior than just reflexes (U.R. and C.R.)
25
What are the Components of Operant Conditioning?
Reinforcements:
- Changes that occur after an Operant Behavior that INCREASES the frequency of the Operant Response in the future
- ("the behavior was reinforced")
Punishments:
- Changes that occur after an Operant Behavior that DECREASES the frequency of the Operant Response in the future
- ("the behavior was punished")
*REINFORCEMENTS ARE MORE EFFECTIVE THAN PUNISHMENTS! (love is stronger than fear)
26
What is the difference between Positive and Negative Reinforcements and Punishments?
POSITIVE Reinforcement:
- The INTRODUCTION of something desirable after a behavior
- INCREASES the likelihood of that behavior in the future
NEGATIVE Reinforcement:
- The REMOVAL of something undesirable after a behavior
- INCREASES the likelihood of that behavior in the future
POSITIVE Punishment:
- The INTRODUCTION of something undesirable after a behavior
- DECREASES the likelihood of that behavior in the future
NEGATIVE Punishment:
- The REMOVAL of something desirable after a behavior
DECREASES the likelihood of that behavior in the future
27
What is Sensory Memory? What role does attention play in it?
Sensory Memory: INITIAL SENSATION
* ATTENTION is needed to move information into working memory
28
What is Working Memory? What role does Rehearsal play in it?
Working Memory: INITIAL PERCEPTION
(a.k.a. short-term memory)
This is our consciousness!
* REHEARSAL is necessary to keep information in working memory (capacity is 7ish things)
29
What is the difference between explicit and implicit long-term memory?
Explicit (Declarative) Long-Term Memory:
- SPECIFIC THINGS WE CAN RECALL
Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory:
- NONSPECIFIC THINGS WE REMEMBER BUT CAN'T PINPOINT when or where the experience took place
30
What are the "Representativeness" and the "Availability Heuristics"? Be able to give examples.
Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of something in terms of how well it represents a prototype
(ex: seeing a religious older man who wears glasses and likes the BoM; LDS or Baptist?)
Availability Heuristic: Basing judgments on how easily something can be brought to mind; how cognitively "available" it is (THE NEWS)
(ex: judging fatal automobile accidents to be more common than heart disease deaths when we drive a lot more than we deal with health issues)
31
What do we mean when we talk about a critical period of language?
Language MUST be learned by a certain age. It's very difficult for the child to learn if they are not exposed to language within first few years.
(ex: tragedy of Genie)
32
What is language determinism? Provide an example.
Language determines thought (the language you speak determines how you perceive the world)
(ex: Time ~ volume in Spanish
Time ~ distance in English)
33
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs/motives?
- Not all motives are equal
- Some motives and goals have priority over others
- We must fulfill basic needs first before moving on to higher motives
PYRAMID
1) Self-Actualization: fulfillment & achievement
2) Esteem Needs: psychological
3) Belongingness & Love Needs: psychological
4) Safety Needs: basic
5) Physiological Needs: basic
34
What is the implication of Maslow's Hierarchy regarding how we choose what goals to pursue?
Our goals (motivations) will change depending on what needs we need to fulfill
35
What is the difference between "Intrinsic" and "Extrinsic" motivation? Give examples of each.
Intrinsic Motivation: the INTERNAL desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
* Better for Long Term Goals
(ex: the strong desire to grow closer to Heavenly Father)
Extrinsic Motivation: behaving a certain way to gain EXTERNAL rewards (or avoid potential punishments)
* Better for Short Term Goals
(ex: the desire to please others)
36
What is the fundamental attribution error?
The tendency to overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate the influence of situation
37
What were the findings of Asch’s conformity experiments?
People conform to group pressure and deny evidence of their own senses.
74% of people conform to the wrong thing even if they know it's wrong.
(clearly different lengths of lines)
38
What are the three components of prejudice?
1) Affections (prejudice emotions)
2) Behaviors (discrimination)
3) Cognitions (stereotypes)
39
What are the 4 Ds of defining psychological disorders?
1) Deviance
2) Distress
3) Dysfunction
4) Danger
40
What is Deviance? How does it help us define/diagnose a psychological disorder?
Different, extreme, unusual, perhaps even bizarre behaviors
- Deviance from what? From social norms, cultural norms, or specific circumstances
* NOT NORMAL -> disorder
41
What is Distress? How does it help us define/diagnose a psychological disorder?
When things that are unpleasant or upsetting to the person causes suffering
(ex: anxiety)
* NOT NORMAL -> disorder
42
What is Dysfunction? How does it help us define/diagnose a psychological disorder?
Behaviors that interferes with daily life and distracts from productivity
* NOT NORMAL -> Disorder
43
What is Danger? How does it help us define/diagnose a psychological disorder?
- Potential harm or danger to self/others
- Careless, Hostile, confused
- Immediate vs. long term
* NOT NORMAL -> Disorder
44
What are the dangers of psychological disorders? (who is likely to be hurt?)
Psychological disorders affect normal functions, physical health, family and other relationships, job performance, and can lead to public safety concerns. In short, Psychological can potentially hurt EVERYONE :(
45
Do psychological disorders predict violence?
Psychological disorders do NOT predict violence
- Most violent criminals are not mentally ill
- Most mentally ill people are not violent
- Violence is difficult to predict
46
What is the difference between suicidal behavior and non-suicidal self injury?
SUICIDAL BEHAVIOR
Alternative to:
- Life suffering
- Lack of belonging
- Inescapable situation
- Burdening others
NON-SUICIDAL SELF INJURY
Intention to:
- Find emotional relief
- Attract attention and help
- Relieve guilt
- Fit in with a peer group
47
What are the pros and cons of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manuel of Mental Disorders? (medical model)
Pros:
- Creates common terminology
- Clinical utility
- Promotes unified research
- Fosters understanding/communication
Cons:
- Differences in reliability
- Symptom heterogeneity
- High rate of comorbidity
- Pathologizes everyday life
48
How does the BioPsychoSocial model differ from the medical model for understanding psychological disorders?
Shows the relationship between biological, psychological, and social factors in relation to psychological disorders rather than attempting to create a one-size-fits all way to diagnose.
49
What are the benefits and risks of labelling psychological disorders?
Benefits:
- communication & treatment planning
- research & understanding
- access to treatment
- insurance & legal purposes
Risks:
- stigmatization & labeling
- over-diagnosis & misdiagnosis
- self-fulfilling prophecy
- impact on identity
50
What are some protective factors of eating disorders?
- Positive Body Image
- Healthy Coping Mechanisms
- Supportive Social Relationships
- Self-Esteem & Self-Efficacy
- Nutritional Knowledge
- Emotional Intelligence
- Media Literacy
- Early Intervention & Support
- Resilience & Adaptive Coping
51
What are some risk factors of eating disorders?
- Early puberty
- Perfectionism
- Internalization of the thin ideal
- Teasing by peers/bullying
- Maternal preoccupation with weight
- Athletic competition
52
What is Anorexia Nervosa?
ANOREXIA NERVOSA: Dietary restriction
- Significant low weight
- Increased desire to control eating
- Intense fear of becoming fat
53
What is Bulimia Nervosa?
BULIMIA NERVOSA
Recurrent episodes of binge eating
- Large amounts of food
- Discrete period of time
- Lack of control
- Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behaviors
- Negative body image
- Self-worth = body size/shape
54
What is Generalized Anxiety Disorder?
Overwhelming sense of worry that applies to many different things
- persistent, chronic, or obsessive worrying
- autonomic arousal (twitching, sweating, being jittery)
- inability to identify the cause of anxiety ("free floating anxiety" means that it's hard to pinpoint the root cause)
* Constant Anxiety -> Stress Responses
- Stress also negatively affects physical health (ex: immune system)
55
What is Panic Disorder?
Generalized anxiety with incidence of panic attacks
- can last several minutes
- episodes of intense dread, terror
- dizzy, tight chest, heart pounding (often mistaken for heart attack)
* can occur without warning
* can be in response to specific situation (not necessarily "free floating")
* worrying about having panic attack -> more anxiety
56
What is Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)? What are obsessions and compulsions?
Persistence of unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and urges to engage in rituals (compulsions) that help relieve obsessive thoughts
- individuals with OCD are aware that their compulsions are irrational, but cannot stop :(
- they feel like it's the only way to relieve their anxiety :(
57
What is Scrupulosity?
A specific type of OCD:
- pathological guilt or obsession associated with moral issues that is often accompanied by compulsive religious observance
- obsessions: living the gospel "right", urgency to repent for the same mistakes
- compulsions: obsessive prayer, check-list attitude about scripture study or temple attendance
* Not done to increase the Spirit, but to decrease anxiety
58
What is PTSD? What are common symptoms?
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
- Intrusive Thoughts & Memories
- Avoidance
- Worsened Mood
- Easily Startled, Irritable, Bad Sleep
* Long-Lasting :(
59
How might the limbic system play a role in the development of PTSD?
* The limbic system is a complex brain network involved in emotions, memory, and the regulation of various physiological responses
- Amygdala Activation
- Fear Conditioning
- Hippocampal Changes
- Neurotransmitter Imbalances
60
How does the learning perspective use conditioning to explain anxiety disorders?
THE LEARNING PERSPECTIVE
(ex: anxiety may be partly a result of fear conditioning)
- stimulus generalization: fear of stimulus generalized to other, similar stimuli (ex: fear of public speaking -> social interactions)
- reinforcement: if engaging in behavior reduces fear, we will be more likely to do that behavior (ex: washing hands reduces distress from obsessive thoughts)
* Fear responses can also occur via observational learning
61
What are moods? How many moods are there? What are mood disorders?
MOODs: Long-term emotional states
- more subjective and harder to define than the emotions themselves
- there are many emotions, but generally there are only TWO MOODS: good and bad (with varying intensity)
- moods can "color" our perception of the world
MOOD DISORDERS: Longer-term disturbances in mood
62
What are the core symptoms of Major Depressive Disorders? What is Anhedonia?
Major Depressive Episode (MDE) is at least 2 WEEKS of negativity that you can't seem to get over.
Major Depressive Disorder:
* ANHEDONIA: diminished interest or pleasure in almost all activities (even favorite activities :(
- significant weight loss or gain (dramatic change in appetite)
- insomnia or hypersomnia
- psychomotor agitation or retardation
- fatigue or loss of energy
- feeling worthless
- excessive or inappropriate guilt
- diminished ability to concentrate
- indecisiveness
- recurrent thoughts of death or suicide
63
What are Biological and Socio-Cognitive Perspectives on depression?
THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
(genes and the brain)
- depression rate higher in twins
- higher heritability for bipolar disorder
- neurotransmitters are scarce/inactive during depression
THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
(depression is associated with rumination and negative explanatory styles)
- RUMINATION: continually overthinking about a problem
- NEGATIVE EXPLANATORY STYLES
64
What are the 3 negative explanatory styles? How do they contribute to depression?
People with depression attribute failures in ways that are:
GLOBAL: everything sucks
STABLE: it will always suck
INTERNAL: it sucks because of something about me
65
What is mania and how does it relate to bipolar disorder?
MANIA = CLOUD 9 (ADHD STYLE)
Mania is a distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and increased goal-directed activity or energy. It is one of the key features of bipolar disorder, a mental health condition characterized by recurrent episodes of mania and depression.
66
What is the heritability of bipolar disorder? (low or high?)
Bipolar disorder has a substantial genetic component, and research indicates that it has a relatively HIGH heritability.
67
What is the difference between delusions and hallucinations in the context of schizophrenia? Give examples of each.
Schizophrenia: "split mind" = patient is split from reality
- Delusions: FALSE BELIEFS (ex: I am God; someone is trying to kill me)
- Hallucinations: FALSE PERCEPTIONS (ex: hearing voices; seeing things)
68
What are positive symptoms and what are negative symptoms of schizophrenia?
Positive symptoms: the PRESENCE of inappropriate behaviors
- Hallucinations, disorganized or delusional talking
- Laughing, crying at inappropriate times
Negative symptoms: the ABSENCE of appropriate behaviors
- Expressionless face (flat affect), rigid bodies
69
What is one neurotransmitter related to schizophrenia?
DOPAMINE (excessive dopamine)
70
The experience of emotion consists of what three main responses?
1. Physiological Arousal: (ex: heart pounding)
2. Expressive Behaviors: (ex: pacing quickly)
3. Conscious Experience:
(ex: thoughts and feelings associated with emotion)
71
What is the James-Lange Theory? How do these 3 ways we experience emotion fit together according to this theory?
James-Lange Theory:
AROUSAL BEFORE EMOTION
1. Perception of stimulus
2. Physiological Arousal
(ex: pounding heart)
3. Conscious Experience
(ex: emotion of fear)
72
What is the Cannon-Bard Theory? How do these 3 ways we experience emotion fit together according to this theory?
Cannon-Bard Theory:
AROUSAL AND EMOTIONS ARE SIMULTANEOUS
1. Perception of stimulus
2. Physiological Arousal
(ex: pounding heart)
2. Conscious Experience
(ex: emotion of fear)
* They argued that:
- Physiological responses are too slow to trigger fast emotions
- Same physiological response could signal different emotions
73
What is some evidence against The Cannon-Bard Theory?
Experiment:
If arousal and emotion are simultaneous, interfering with
arousal should not affect emotional experience
-> HOWEVER, patients with high spinal cord injuries (i.e., could not feel anything
below the neck) had different emotional experience after injuries!
* Many emotions were felt LESS intensely
* Emotions involving “above the neck” expression were felt MORE intensely
* Suggests that physiological arousal (and our perception of that arousal) affects emotions
74
What is Schachter-Singer’s Two-Factor Theory? What are the two main factors of this theory?
Emotional experience comes from two factors:
1. Physiological Arousal
2. Cognitive Interpretation (LABELING SENSATIONS)
* We feel
something, THEN look for
cues in the environment
for appropriate or
plausible reasons why
we might feel that way.
75
What are two examples of emotional phenomena that support Schachter-Singer’s Two-Factor Theory?
SPILLOVER EFFECT:
People “caught” feelings from actor, but only when they were told that the chemical would have no effect on them
(i.e., only when they were “looking for a reason” for their arousal)
EMOTION MISATTRIBUTION EFFECT:
The Capilano Bridge Study -> sexual arousal/feelings of attraction were higher after a scary experience
* When we feel an arousal, we HAVE to be able to label it in order for that emotion to arise (we must be able to identify meaning of arousal in order to feel feelings)
76
What is the independent variable and dependent variable(s) of the Capilano Bridge Study?
Independent Variables:
the 2 different bridges
Dependent Variable:
the varying responses of the men
77
How does Zajonc & LeDoux’s emotion theory differ from Schacter and Singer’s two-factor theory?
Zajonc & LeDoux argue that SOME emotional reactions require no deliberative cognitive thinking (NO LABELING OR INTERPRETING)
(ex: Seeing something rustle in the bushes late at night)
(ex: Feeling something crawling on your arm)
78
What is the evidence for Zajonc & LeDoux's Theory of Emotion?
When fearful eyes were subliminally (i.e., outside of conscious
awareness) presented, fMRI scans showed greater amygdala activity (EMOTIONS CAN ARISE WITHOUT CONSCIOUS LABELING)
79
What are the six hypothesized universal emotions according to Ekman? What evidence do we have of this?
* Anger
* Fear
* Disgust
* Surprise
* Happiness
* Sadness
Evidence: Study with remote villagers in New Guinea
80
What are examples of Darwin’s hypothesized evolutionary importance of emotional expression?
Darwin: "Facial expressions are byproducts of physiological reactions to stimuli in
our environment"
*These have given us an advantage over other species
Examples: looking afraid or disgusted (we can't always control that)
81
What is the difference between Encoding and Decoding while reading others' facial expressions? Do they always match?
Encoding: expressing nonverbal behavior
Decoding: interpreting nonverbal behavior
Doesn’t always match!
Can lead to misunderstanding (at best) or interpersonal conflict (at worst)
82
What can interfere with encoding and decoding? What are some examples?
CULTURAL DISPLAY RULES: Culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are
appropriate to display (and when)
Examples:
- Emotional displays (e.g., men vs. women)
- Eye contact
- Personal space
- Hand gestures
* * Not knowing display rules → mismatch in encoding and decoding
83
What affects our first impressions of others? How is Thin-Slicing related?
We form FAST impressions based on facial appearance!
Thin-Slicing: drawing meaningful conclusions about another person’s personality based on
an extremely brief (i.e., thin) sample of behavior
* First impressions can be changed,
but they are surprisingly durable
84
How does appraising a stress as a threat or a challenge change our response to the threat?
Stress responses can be MALDAPTIVE or ADAPTIVE:
* Can increase anxiety, decreased health, lead to unhealthy habits (APPRAISING STRESS AS A THREAT "flight")
OR
* Can mobilize you to action; deal with stressor (APPRAISING STRESS AS A CHALLENGE: "fight")
85
Identify and describe the three phases of Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) in relation to stress ~.
* Stressor Occurs:
1. Alarm (mobilizing resources)
2. Resistance (coping with stressor)
3. Exhaustion (the body's resistance to stress can only last so long)
* Body copes well with temporary stress, but long-term stress can damage it.
86
How does being stressed affect our immune system? What study was used to demonstrate this?
Stress does not make us sick, but alters our immune system functioning
(which leaves us more vulnerable to sickness)
* Researchers exposed participants to the cold virus
-> More-stressed participants were more likely to contract virus
87
How does personality (Type A vs. Type B; optimism vs. pessimism) affect our stress response and vulnerability to heart disease?
TYPE A personalities are more likely to develop heart disease:
* More negative emotions (especially anger)
* Stress response is always “active”
* Blood flows to muscles and away from internal organs (e.g., liver)
* If liver cannot filter fat and cholesterol from blood, it ends up in the heart
PESSIMISTIC personalities are also more likely to develop heart disease:
* Don't manage stress well
* Don't maintain healthy behaviors
* Don't tend to seek emotional/social support
88
How is stress related to AIDS and cancer?
* Too much stress could work against HIV treatment, raising viral load in the blood and making it more likely that HIV will progress to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
* Chronic stress can wear down our body's defenses, lower our immune response, and make us more vulnerable to all sicknesses, including cancer.
89
What is the difference between Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused coping?
PROBLEM-FOCUSED COPING:
* Attempting to reduce stress directly – by changing the stressor
or how we interact with that stressor
* Common when we feel control over situation and
think we can change the situation ("fight!")
EMOTION-FOCUSED COPING:
* Attempting to reduce stress by avoiding/ignoring stressor;
or attending to our own emotional needs
* Useful when we think we cannot control the situation ("flight!")
90
How does Personal Control, Explanatory Style, and Social Support affect our coping?
Less Personal Control over our lives → health problems
(because loss of control produces too many stress hormones)
Optimistic Explanatory Style:
- Stronger immune system, healthier, live longer
- Better moods
- Cope better with stressors
* More likely to have Internal Locus of Control!
Feeling liked and encouraged by friends and family increases health!
- Reduces stress hormones, blood pressure
- Strengthens immune system
- Allows us to confide painful feelings
91
What is the difference between having an External Locus of Control vs. an Internal Locus of Control?
* We can differ in our PERCEPTIONS of control over our lives
EXTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL
* Belief that chance and/or outside forces control our fates
INTERNAL LOCUS OF CONTROL
* Belief that we control our own fate
-> Associated with better learning, work performance,
prosocial behavior; punishment of rule-breakers <-
92
Does money buy happiness? Why or why not?
YES AND NO. Happiness is relative to:
1) our own past experiences and
2) our comparisons of the people around us.
HOWEVER, we do need to fulfill basic needs in order to be happy, so we do need money to get to that point (MASLOW'S HIERARCHY)
93
What are some evidence-based suggestions for a happier life?
* Take control of your time
* Act happy.
* Seek work and leisure that engage your skills.
* Buy experiences rather than things.
* Join the “movement” movement.
* Give your body the sleep it wants.
* Give priority to close relationships.
* Focus and find meaning beyond self.
* Challenge your negative thinking.
* Count your blessings and record your gratitude.
* Nurture your spiritual self.
94
What is personality?
An individual’s distinctive and persistent characteristic pattern of
thinking, feeling, and acting
95
What is Psychodynamic Theory? Generally, how does it explain personality?
"Personality and behavior results from a dynamic interaction between the CONSCIOUS and UNCONSCIOUS MIND"
96
What are the 3 levels of consciousness?
1. CONSCIOUS: thoughts and feelings you are aware of right now
2. PRECONSCIOUS: thoughts that we are not currently aware of, but we can easily bring them to the forefront of our mind
3. UNCONSCIOUS: mental processes that cannot come into awareness
- most important to Freud
- difficult to bring to our conscious mind
(ex: fears, urges, selfish needs)
97
What are the 3 structures of personality? How do they interact?
1. ID (instincts/natural man): completely unconscious, basic urges instilled within us since birth
- Pleasure principle: demands instant gratification
- Ignores risks, dangers, and consequences
2. SUPEREGO (morality/Spirit of Christ): internalized rules of society; your conscience
- gives rise to guilt or pride
3. EGO (rationality/our agency): balances desires of id and superego
- anxiety arises when ego is unable to satisfy them both
98
How does the topographic model demonstrate the relationship between the parts of personality and consciousness?
ICEBERG
EGO shows above surface, whereas ID is only below surface of consciousness. SUPEREGO can be is conscious, preconscious and unconscious.
99
How do projective tests attempt to examine the unconscious?
People are asked to describe ambiguous stimuli; clinicians then interpret those descriptions
- they give the unconscious a chance to "leak out" (ex: Freudian Slips)
- assumption: unconscious desires are projected onto their description
100
What are 4 types of projective tests?
FREE ASSOCIATION: "say whatever comes to mind"
DREAM ANALYSIS: studying what happened and what was felt during dreams is "the golden road to the unconscious" - Freud
THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST (TAT):
making up story about various scenes
RORSCHACH INKBLOT TEST:
"what do you see in this image?"
101
What are the potential advantages and disadvantages of those projective tests? (thematic apperception test & rorschach inkblot test)
Advantages:
- may help "break the ice" between clinician and client
- some evidence of validity
Disadvantages:
- depends a lot on perception (very subjective)
102
How did Freud think that personality developed through psychosexual stages?
"personality forms during childhood -> reaches an unchanged state in adulthood"
Psychosexual Stages:
- at each stage, the id's pleasure-seeking energy is focused on different areas of the body
- personality is determined by how a child handles the frustration at each stage
103
What are the 5 Psychosexual Stages? (according to Freud)
Oral (0-18 months)
- pleasure centers on the mouth
(sucking, biting, chewing)
Anal (18-36 months)
- pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination
(coping with demands for control)
Phallic (3-6 years)
- pleasure zone is the genitals
(coping with incestuous sexual feelings)
Latency (6-puberty)
- a phase of dormant sexual feelings
(starting to like the opposite sex)
Genital (puberty-on)
- maturation of sexual interests
(ew)
104
What are Defense Mechanisms? Give 3 examples of defense mechanisms.
Unconscious strategies used by the EGO to deal with desires, drives,
and conflicts from the ID
Repression: moving conflict into unconscious (undermines all other defense
Reaction formation: switching unacceptable impulse into opposite
(ex: when homosexual people become extremely homophobic)
Projection: attributing one’s own unacceptable impulse to others (justifying behavior)
105
What are some of Freud's ideas that are supported?
- Two-Track Mind: much of our thinking is unconscious
- Implicit attitudes: evaluations that occur without conscious awareness
- We can have conflicting goals and desires!
106
What are some of Freud's ideas that are unsupported?
- personality develops throughout life and is not fixed at the end of childhood
- psychoanalytic theory relies on repression of painful experiences, BUT many people are unable to repress painful experiences
107
How was the humanistic approach a reaction to behaviorism and the psychodynamic approach? What was its general approach?
Reaction to:
- negativity of psychodynamic theories
- mechanistic view of behaviorism
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY: focused on how we think about ourselves and identity (i.e. our self-concept) rather than how our personality is determined by the unconscious or simple conditioning
* Abraham Maslow
* Carl Rogers
108
How did Rogers think that the ideal and actual self might cause problems with self-actualization?
Distress arises when there is a gap between our 'ideal self' and our 'actual self', inhibiting personal growth towards self-actualization
* We really need to accept who we are in order to reach self-actualization!
109
What were 3 factors that Rogers argued promoted self-actualization?
FACTORS PROMOTING SELF-ACTUALIZATION
1. Genuineness: allows individuals to be open/honest about feelings
2. Acceptance: unconditional positive regard: accepting individuals despite failures
3. Empathy: when others share and mirror our feelings--an individual feels understood
110
How does trait theory provide different explanation from psychodynamic/humanistic theories?
* Our personality is best understood as a collection of TRAITS
Trait: Predisposition to think, feel, or act in a certain way
111
What is factor analysis and why is it useful to trait theorists?
Factor Analysis: finds groups of things that have something in common
(finds traits that are correlated with each other)
Factor: the underlying "thing" that ties them all together
-> FACTOR ANALYSIS HELPED TO DEVELOP THE BIG 5
112
What is “The Big 5”? Define and describe each.
O.C.E.A.N.
1. Openness To Experience
- imaginative, independent, enjoy new experiences and ideas, usually artsy
2. Conscientiousness
- self-disciplined and competent, dutiful, careful, organized, achievement
3. Extraversion:
- outgoing, social, fun-loving, affectionate
4. Agreeableness:
- compassionate, friendly, trustworthy, (opposite is antagonistic)
5. Neuroticism:
- insecure, worried, sensitive (emotional stability is high if neuroticism is low)
113
What is the Barnum Effect? How does it caution us against some personality assessments?
Our tendency to believe that this broad explanation of our personality applies to us personally, when in reality those statements apply to nearly everybody.
-> HELPS US TO NOT BELIEVE EVERYTHING WE HEAR!
114
What is the person-situation debate? What did both sides say?
The controversy concerning whether the person or the situation is more influential in determining a person's behavior.
* Personality Trait Psychologists believe that a person's personality is relatively consistent across situations.
* Situationists argue that people are not consistent enough from situation to situation to be characterized by broad personality traits.
115
How does Interactionism attempt to resolve the debate?
Interactionism focuses on the way that we act or make conscious choices regarding our behavior that proceed from how we interpret situations. In other words, humans are not simply reacting to social stimuli: we are social actors and must adjust our behavior based on the actions of other social actors.
116
What is the Self?
One's representation of the attributes that one believes one actually possesses, or that one believes others believe one possesses.
117
What is The Spotlight Effect?
The spotlight effect is the psychological phenomenon by which people tend to believe they are being noticed more than they really are.
118
How did Gilovich study the spotlight effect?
His research involved a series of experiments designed to investigate whether people are as noticeable to others as they think they are. In one of the experiments, participants were asked to wear embarrassing t-shirts with a potentially embarrassing image (such as a Barry Manilow picture) in a college setting. Participants were then asked to estimate the number of people who would notice and remember their t-shirt.
119
What is the self-serving bias?
The heuristic of seeing one's self with an overly positive view in order to enhance or maintain self-confidence and esteem.
