Final LING 201 Flashcards

Question

Noun

Answer 1

M= plural, possessive D= with determiner

Answer 2

M= past, progressive, 3rd singular D= with auxiliary

Answer 3

M= comparative, superlative D= with degree word

Answer 4

M=n/a D= with degree word

Answer 5

M=n/a D= with noun phrase

Answer 6

M=n/a D= with noun

Answer 7

Transmit meaning (N, V, adj, adv), tend to be open, easy to update or expand

Answer 8

Required by the grammar of the language, usually closed, difficult to update or expand - det, degree words, propositions - complementizers = that, if, whether - conjunctions= and, but, nor - auxiliaries = must, might, can - pronouns = i, we, it

Answer 9

Within a phrase, some words are more closely connected to each other, can vary in length, tells us something about the grammatical structure of the sentence, same string of words may exibit different structures

Answer 10

Constituents are syntactically interchangeable when same type if replaced by words with same syntactic properties without effecting the grammaticality or syntactic properties = both are constituents some single words can have same syntactic properties as entire phrases (they - noun phrases, do so - verb phrases)

Answer 11

some phrases can be moved to a different part of the sentence (only constituents can, often at beginning), some contintuents cannot be moved

Answer 12

Constituents of the same type can be coordinated using a coordinating conjunction (and, or) Not all syntactic categories can be coordinated (determiners)

Answer 13

Hierarchical structure that represents internal relations - binary Node - a point and/or everything benearth a point in the tree (syntactic category, always a constituent)

Answer 14

All phrases can be described with the same structure XP = placeholder for any type of syntactic phrase Phrase head = obligatory nucleus of the phrase, endocentric (head always contained within) Specifier = function word at the edge of a phrase, sometimes required, not a phrase on its own Complement = information about the head, sometimes not required, (may be required by the particular head), a phrase on its own Complements are structurally closer to heads than specifiers, purpose of X' node Phrases may have any number of complements, but typically only one specifier (multiple X'nodes possible)

Answer 15

H= verb S= particular types of adverbs, (never, almost, often..) C= optional, varies

Answer 16

H= noun S= determiner C= optional, varies

Answer 17

H= adj S= degree word (very, quite, hardly) C= optional, PP

Answer 18

H= adverb S= degree word No C

Answer 19

H= preposition C= NP No specifier

Answer 20

Constituents can be nested in other constituents must be in line with X-bar schema Recursion?

Answer 21

If internal structure not important, can be replaced with a shorthand triangle

Answer 22

Also constituens, with X-bar schema Tense phrase H= Tense (Cover or modal) S= NP C= VP

Answer 23

Same string of words can correspond to different syntactic structures, with different meaning that is related to the structure

Answer 24

Constituent that contains a subject and a verb Matrix = entire sentence (multiple smaller clauses) Complementizer = word signals that a clause follows

Answer 25

Complements = TPs H= complementizer (if, whether, that) Clauses introduced by a complementizer bear overt evidence of a CP tier All TPs are contained in a CP tier (including matrix clauses)

Answer 26

Only answered with yes or no

Answer 27

Movement of T to C position in questions Appears in Eng yes-no questions = T moves to C, so questions contain a +Q feature (needs to be satisfied)

Answer 28

Can happen in different circumstances for different reasons (satisfy some sort of abstract feature) Does not alter syntactic properties of the elements Leaves a trace t

Answer 29

Deep = before movement Surface = after movement Implies two different levels of syntactic structure

Answer 30

Require another answer Wh-word has same syntactic properties as the information saught in the answer Always in front of the sentence

Answer 31

Difference in word order as result of movement = wh-words/phrases move to specifier of CP Also exhibit inversion

Answer 32

Head before complement (right-branching), modals precede verbs, verbs precede objects, prepositions, relative clauses follow referent) Head follow complement (left-branching), modals follow verbs, verbs follow objects, postpositions, relative clauses precede referent Some languages exibit both types of structures The position of the specifier with respect to the head is independent

Answer 33

Wh-words move to specifier of CP (eng, spa, fr) Wh-words do not move (mandarin)

Answer 34

Raise V to T (separate from inversion T to C) Fr = toujours is a specifier

Answer 35

Exhibit inversion and verb raising, so V ends up in head of C (like Eng modals)

Answer 36

Sentences can be T or F Truth conditions = state of the world under which a sentence is true Know meaning of a sentence = knowing TC (no requirement for the sentence to be true or TC compatible with real world) TC of one sentence may have a logical relation to the TC of another

Answer 37

A sentence p entails a sentence q if when p is true q is also true = q follows from p, q does not introduce infos not contained in p

Answer 38

p is equivalent to q if p entails q and q entails p * p and q mean the same thing * it is impossible to construct a scenario where p would be logically different from q

Answer 39

contradicts q if when p is true q is false and when q is true p is false * Both p and q being true would result in a paradox

Answer 40

p is contrary to q if when p is true q is false * Both cannot be true, though both can be false

Answer 41

LR between words A is a subset of B

Answer 42

A and B are the same set

Answer 43

A and B are non-overlapping and exhaustive subsets

Answer 44

A and B are non-overlapping (but not necessarily exhaustive) subsets

Answer 45

A sentence p presupposes q if p entails q regardless if p is true Presuppositions are part of the common ground, the information shared by the speaker and listener *Presuppositions are context-dependent *Negating the presupposition does not negate the direction of entailment

Answer 46

words with the same spelling or the same pronunciation (also both)

Answer 47

words with the same spelling but not (necessarily) the same pronunciation

Answer 48

words with the same pronunciation but not (necessarily) the same spelling

Answer 49

words with more than one related meaning (almost always spelled the same) - arise due to semantic change (one meaning is extended to refer to a related meaning) - no vagueness (meaning partly defined by the context) = ex, adj or pronouns

Answer 50

pairs of words with very similar meanings * True synonymy is rare and, arguably, impossible

Answer 51

pairs of words that are ‘opposite’ in some sense *Often used informally *Incompatible scalar adjectives: ‘tall’ vs ‘short’, ‘quick’ vs ‘slow’ *Complementary words: ‘dead’ vs ‘alive’, ‘day’ vs ‘night’

Answer 52

Context-dependent by definition (refer to salient element in the conversation, new or previously mentioned) Grammatical properties of the pronouns give us some info about the referent (person, number, gender)

Answer 53

Describe a value on a scale = scalar adjectives The relevant portion of the scale depends on the noun

Answer 54

Derive meaning from a sentence that is neither entailed nor presupposed Can be violated

Answer 55

Contribution required by the goal of the conversation 4 maxims (Gricean) Interpret utterance under the assumption that the speaker is being cooperative

Answer 56

Be relevant to the goal of the conversation Assume that collocutor is providing information that is related to what we are talking about If info appears irrelevant on the surface, we try to think of a scenario where it would be relevant

Answer 57

Say as much as is required by the goal of the conversation Assume that speaker is not omitting important information Everything that is said is construed to be relevant

Answer 58

Do not say what you think is false and do not say what you lack evidence for People lie and say unsubstantiated things = subverting principles = structure of the conversation rests on the assumption that people are honest Not-jokes

Answer 59

Make your contribution as clear as possible (avoid obscurity and ambiguity, bried and orderly)

Answer 60

Respond differently to humain voices, preference to their parent's voices Perceive all acoustic contrasts as equally different At 8months, perception becomes attuned the phonological contrasts of their language specifically (lose ability to reliably distinguish between contrasts not found in their language)

Answer 61

6mo-12mo develop control over their articulators (necessary for linguistic development) lot of cross-linguistic similarities between babnling in children of different ages (language independent, no linguistically marked structures (rare phenemes are absent even if these are present in the ambient language, simple syllable structure)

Answer 62

Vowels before C, stops are first C acquired Labial > alveolars> velars>alveopalatals (diff from language universals) Onsets before codas

Answer 63

Immature productions of particular words often reflect a child's inability to produce certain sounds or certain phonological structures Similar to phonological processes observed in adult grammar (underlying representation is modified by various processes, but different = ungrammatical even by children themselves, often sporadic (non-regular) in their application)

Answer 64

Stressed syllables are more prosodically prominent than unstressed syllables, so deleted from the output (particularly in the middle of the word)

Answer 65

CV is best syllable shape (complex onsets and codas are avoided, codas are avoided altogether) Syllable structure repaires through deletion (the more sonorant element is deleted)

Answer 66

Affect properties of segements rather than individual segments obstruent ->stops

Answer 67

consonant -> alveolar

Answer 68

liquid -> glide

Answer 69

consonant ->oral

Answer 70

Common cross-linguistically (common in children's speech) Long distance place assimilation Vc obstruents are more common in the speech of children than vs obstruents - due to assimilation in voicing to the following vowel/sonorant (lenition)

Answer 71

18mo = around 50 words between 1,5-6yo = vocabulary acquired rapidly (around 14k words by 6yo) lot of variation between children lot of similarity between languages general trends = nouns first, words with concrete meanings before words with abstract meanings, lexical items before functional items

Answer 72

Difficult task (world full to objects and properties, natural phenomena are gradient and not clearly delineated, many words are not observable phenomena) several assumption that children tend to make when acquiring the meaning of a new word

Answer 73

the acquired meaning is more general than the intended meaning *Overuse of type assumption or basic level assumption -Some evidence that the child is aware of the mistake and that overextension is a strategy to compensate for limited vocabulary *Once the child acquires the intended target, they modify the original meaning

Answer 74

the acquired meaning is more specific than the intended meaning *Underuse of type assumption and basic level assumption

Answer 75

the word refers to the whole object

Answer 76

refers to a type of thing

Answer 77

refers to objects that are alike in basic ways

Answer 78

1- words are memorized whole (no evidence of morphology) 2- inflectional morphology overgeneralized (errors not found in adult speech, strong evidence of morphology, no irregular morphology yet) 3- adult-like morphology

Answer 79

1-1,5yo one word used to convert an entire utterance, typically the most informative word in the utterance is used

Answer 80

1.5-2yo limited number of sentential patterns (N+V, N+N) almost complete absence of functional items

Answer 81

2-2.5yo longer sentences some functional items and inflectional morphology still missing Rapid development after the telegraphic stage = syntactic movement acquired later on

Answer 82

Speech to carry info about the meaning, but also information about the speaker (linguistic features as members of a particular speech community, called indexes) Indexes are subconscious or used consciously to build speaker identity Ex= creaky voice/vocal fry (danish for info, english for indexical information (young, female, lower level of education, friendly, casual..))

Answer 83

allophony not conditioned by phonological environment * Random variation from the perspective of phonology * No variation is truly free or random * Sociolinguistic factors (variety, who, what is situation, mood, blood-alcohol level...)

Answer 84

p¬, t¬,k¬ = no release following the stop, complete silence in eng = vs stops in free-variation with unreleased stops in word-final position (otherwise, always released = sometimes released at the end, depends largely on sociolinguistic factors)

Answer 85

a group of speakers who share sociolinguistic norms about language use * Speakers sound like the people they speak to * Pockets of similar sounding speakers develop over time * Speech communities form across several salient sociological dimensions: (Geography, Age, Socio-economic class, Ethnicity, Gender, Sexual orientation * Features that are prescriptively incorrect are often part of a stigmatized speech community * Reminder: prescriptive norms are social in origin not linguistic * Even within a speech community, the grammar of every speaker is unique * Everyone speaks their own idiolect

Answer 86

geographically separate mutually intelligible speech variety * Cockney, Newfie, Scots, New Zealand... all dialects of English

Answer 87

phonetic component of a dialect * Outside of linguistics: the pronunciation of a non-standard or non-local variety * In linguistics: all dialects are associated with an accent * Everyone has an accent Geographic separation is linguistic separation * The farther someone is, the harder it is to communicate with them * Dialects eventually become languages as mutual intelligibility decreases over time

Answer 88

Speakers of different ages belong to different speech communities * Even in the same dialect, older speakers do not sound like younger speakers * Assumption: individuals generally do not alter their speech over time * Once you finish acquiring your native language as a teen, your speech variety becomes less malleable * 60 year-olds today roughly sound like 20 year-olds 40 years ago * The assumption is mostly but not completely true * The speech of older speakers is still a little bit malleable, but noticeably less so

Answer 89

Measuring the same variable at different points in time * Accurate but extremely time-consuming

Answer 90

Measuring the same variable at one point in time across different age groups * Some error * Differences in age groups reflect past (and future!) trends * Older speakers will eventually disappear * Replaced by young speakers

Answer 91

when linguistic features associate the speaker with a high socio-economic class * Often correlated with the standard dialect or prescriptive notions

Answer 92

when non-standard linguistic features associate the speaker with a desired but non-standard speech community * Dialectal features * Makes one sound local and not foreign * Features of non-standard varieties * Makes one sound worldly and casual

Answer 93

Linguistic prestige is correlated with socioeconomic class * Linguistic prestige is also correlated with social situation * Official situations or situations where the feature is more salient * Increased articulatory effort goes to increasing linguistic prestige * Speakers just below the highest strata of society overcompensate * Use more prestigious features than those in the highest strata in official or salient situation

Answer 94

Grouped with Witot and Yurok languages as Algic Cree, Ojibwe, Blackfoot, Mohican Around 150k people across southern canada and US

Answer 95

Only one with relative in Eurasia (Dene-Yeniseian language family) Navajo, Dogrib, Chipewyan Around 20k speakers in NW canada and Southern UN

Answer 96

Inuktitut, Greenlandic, Aleut Around 40k speakers in Nothern and NE Canada, Alaska and Greenland

Answer 97

Canadian prairies and US MidWest

Answer 98

British Columbia and Washington state

Answer 99

Western BC and Vancouver Island

Answer 100

Around Great Lakes region (heavily endangered) And more in US, other parts in North America and in South America

Answer 101

A language with no known relatives (Basque, Korean..) Haida = in NBC Ktunaxa = SE BC

Answer 102

Algonquin = simple C and V inventories West Coast = complex C inventories Labial segments = less common in Indigenous lang of NA (some lack them, mostly rare)

Answer 103

Pronouns/verbs inflected for clusivity Inclusive we = speaker + listener + third parties Exclusive we = speaker + third parties only Marked by inflectional morphology (Algonquin, Iroquoian, Siouan, Wakashan) Also in languages outside of the Americas (Georgian, Tagalog, Ainu)

Answer 104

Nearby of salient in the conversation

Answer 105

Distant or not salient in the convo, known as 4th person Many Algonquin languages and Ktunaxa have a separate morpheme for the obviative

Final LING 201 Flashcards

(131 cards)