Final Review Flashcards
1
Q
What are the three main components of the cardiovascular system?
A
Heart, blood vessels, blood
2
Q
Deoxygenated blood returns to __________ from venous circulation
A
Right atrium
3
Q
Oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle and goes to ___________?
A
Capillary beds
4
Q
What occurs at the capillary beds?
A
O2/CO2 and nutrient exchange
5
Q
Where is the majority of blood in the body found?
A
Systemic veins and venules
6
Q
______ are thick and smooth muscular walls, need to handle high pressure (aorta)
A
Arteries
7
Q
_________ are less muscular, further away from the heart, highly innervated to control smooth muscle contraction, and the main site of BP regulation.
A
Arterioles
8
Q
__________ have no muscle and no control over contraction; no ability to withstand pressure. However, movement of fluid is maximised.
A
Capillaries
9
Q
________ are the main site of lymphocytes (crossing from blood to lymph-nodes)
A
Venules
10
Q
_________ are thin-walled, relatively muscular, and used for efficient expansion and recoil
A
Veins
11
Q
Blood is conducted rapidly under these conditions
A
Vessel has high velocity and low-surface area
12
Q
Low velocity and high surface area in vessls is good for __________.
A
Gas/nutrient exchange
13
Q
Amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute
A
Cardiac output
14
Q
Heart rate and stroke volume increases during ___________
A
exercise
15
Q
Deoxygenated blood in veins uses a pressure gradient to go against gravity and is facilitated by?
A
Expansion of thoracic cavity
Contracting skeletal muscles
Valves (prevent blood from flowing backward)
16
Q
Valve malfunction; allowing for the backward flow of blood in superficial veins. (veins protrude from skin).
A
Varicose veins
17
Q
Neural input is ________
A
Involuntary contraction
18
Q
35% of the heart’s volume is composed of?
A
Mitochondria
19
Q
The 1st sound “Lub” the heart makes is blood going from the _________ to the _________.
A
atria, ventricle
20
Q
The 2nd sound the heart makes “dub” is the ___________.
A
Closure of semilunar (pulmonary and aortic) valves
21
Q
Narrowing of valves, genetic or may be due to calcification, or scarring
May lead to heart failure in more serious conditions
A
Stenosis
22
Q
4 Issues of artificial heart valves:
A
Durability → (carbon, titanium)
Clot formation → requires consistent anticoagulant therapy
Can get stuck
Resistance to flow → vulnerability to backflow
23
Q
Contraction is __________.
Relaxation is _____________.
A
Systole, diastole
24
Q
Blood pressure = ________/_________
A
systole, diastole
25
The initial stretching of the cardiac myocytes prior to contraction. Related to ventricular filling.
Preload
26
Diastolic arterial pressure.
The pressure against which the heart has to work to eject blood during systole.
Never drops to 0.
The higher the pressure the harder your heart has to work to open a valve.
Afterload
27
The heart's natural pacemaker
Sinoatrial (SA) node
28
Picks up electric signal and carries it to the ventricles
Atrioventricular (AV) node
29
What are 3 nerves in the heart?
Bundle of His
Bundle of branches
Purkinge fibers
30
Gap Junctions of the heart are formed by __________.
Intercalated disks
31
Miscommunication in the heart results in?
arrythmia
32
Abnormal SA node firing results in ____________
tachycardia (fast heart beat) or bradycardia (slow heartbeat)
33
Can slow down or prevent signal to get from atria to ventricles
Blockages
34
____________is a quivering or irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
atrial fibrillation
35
Lower chambers fibrillate on their own
Ventricular fibrillation
36
Sympathetic innervation is when ___________ increases heart rate.
Norepinephrine
37
Parasympathetic innervation is when _________ reduces hearth rate.
Acetylcholine
38
A sign of being overworked
Hypertrophy
39
Plaque buildup on arterial wall makes it harder to push blood through heart as it leads to thickening of walls
Atherosclerosis
40
Catheter and balloon are threaded into the coronary artery
| Balloon is inflated to push plaque to sides of arterial wall to open artery
Angioplasty
41
maximum pressure
| When the ventricles contract, sending blood out to arteries
Systolic BP
42
minimum pressure
| When the heart relaxes between beats → never zero due to elastic recoil
Diastolic BP
43
Alpha-receptors are located on arteries
Norepinephrine and epinephrine bind to alpha adrenergic receptors
Causes arteries to constrict
Blood pressure increases!
Vasoconstriction
44
Blood vessels in skeletal muscles lack alpha-receptors
Norepinephrine and epinephrine bind to beta adrenergic receptors
This dilates vessels of the skeletal muscle to increase blood flow
Vasodilation
45
Four basic processes of the gastrointestinal system
Motility, Secretion, Digestion, Absorption
46
Chemical and mechanical digestion starts here
Cephalic phase (the stage in which the stomach responds to the mere sight, smell, taste, or thought of food)
47
Digestion of protein and fat occurs in the stomach, but not ____________
Carbohydrates
48
Chief cells release _________ for the breakdown of protein
pepsinogen
49
Chief cells release ________ to breakdown lipids, stimulated by ___________
Gastric lipase, acetylcholine
50
Bicarbonate is secreted in mucus to ____________.
Neutralise pH
51
The gallbladder stores ___________
Bile
52
Without a gallbladder, the liver directs _____________ without storage
bile
53
Increase surface area to promote nutrient absorption
Villi/microvilli
54
The pyloric sphincter opens and food (chyme) enters the upper duodenum
Stage 1 of absorption in the small intestine
55
Digestive enzymes anchored on the luminal surface of the small intestine epithelial cells
Stage 2 of absorption into the small intestine
56
3 carbohydrates that are transported across the absorptive cells of the intestinal surface
Glucose, galactose, fructose
57
___________ is higher at birth and infancy because they require higher levels of fat and lactose
Lactase
58
____________ are amphipathic; allow fat to mix with water
bile salts
59
___________ have hydrophilic outside, lipophilic (hydrophobic) inside
Micelles
60
the majority of lipid digestion occurs where?
Pancreas
61
Triglycerides get packaged into a ____________ which is a lipid transport
chlyomicron
62
where the large and small intestine connnect
Ileocecal valve
63
_____________ digest and absorb what chemicals they can in anaerobic fermentation. Produce short-chain fatty acids as end-products of fermentation.
Resident microbes
64
when you take antibiotics it is important to eat _____________to balance this effect.
Probiotics
65
drive to eat to obtain pleasure even when you’re not hungry
Hedonic hunger
66
Increased motivation to eat following depletion of energy stores (when you’re actually hungry)
Homeostatic hunger
67
Moves chyme through the large intestine (bulking agent)
Insoluble fiber
68
Carbohydrates and fat are broken down into ___________ which is the entry point into Krebs cycle which leads to the production of ATP
Acetyl CoA
69
The majority of ATP comes from reducing equivalents such as
FADH2 and NADH
70
Phosphocreatine (PCr) degradation → short high-intensity burst of energy
Anaerobic ATP production
71
Efficient and energy-dense
Fat
72
Stored in the liver and muscle in the form of glycogen → supplies blood with glucose (important in a fasted state)
Highly branched structure of glycogen always for efficient storage
Carbohydrates
73
```
Body mass (muscle) will be used in starvation or caloric restriction (low carbohydrate diet)
The body tries to protect these stores
```
Protein
74
Aerobically, can generate ATP slightly faster than fat
Can generate ATP anaerobically (3x faster than aerobic)
However, holds lots of water
Carbohydrates
75
Doesn’t hold water, twice as energy-dense
Represents our most abundant energy reserve
Can’t provide energy anaerobically (must have oxygen)
Fat
76
storage of excess nutrients after eating
Glycogen (carbohydrate) stored in liver and muscle
Triglycerides (fat) stored in adipose tissue, liver, and muscle
Excess calories in the form of glucose or amino acids will get converted to fat
Anabolism
77
When the body breaks down stored macronutrients to supply the brain and nervous system with glucose
Various pathways that break down protein, triglycerides, and glycogen
Catabolism
78
Is the pathway in which glycogen is broken down into glucose → to help maintain our blood glucose levels which supply the nervous system and brain with glucose
Glycogenolysis
79
Is the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors (lactate and pyruvate leaving muscle and being converted into glucose in the liver) → making glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors.
Gluconeogenesis
80
Too much glucose
Hyperglycemia
81
Too little glucose
Hypoglycemia
82
Can cause glycosylation of amino acids in kidneys, peripheral nerves, the lens of the eye, causing damage. → getting glucose where you don’t want it.
Hyperglycemia
83
Decreases blood glucose level
Insulin
84
Increases blood glucose level
Glucagon
85
Insulin goes up, glucagon goes down (after you eat) → insulin to glucagon ratio increases!
Less production of glucose in liver
86
Insulin goes down, glucagon goes up (after not eating for a while) → glucagon to insulin ratio increases!
Glucose production in liver increases
87
Represents major source of genetic variation (not the only source)
Represents major source that distinguishes phenotypes
SNPs
88
Is an inflammatory cytokine that when increased also increases mortality rate
IL-6
89
Mitochondrial damage occurs 10x more frequently due to the generation of
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)
90
Reads and replicates/repairs mitochondrial DNA
DNA polymerase gamma
91
DNA pol-y gamma is not as effective as we __________
age
92
Can lower the level of DNA mutations in mice, heart is also enlarged, brain weight also increases . → even though mice were prone to aging process
Exercise
93
Places where individuals commonly live to be 100
| Family focus, social engagement, no smoking, limited alcohol, plant-based diet, physical activity
Blue zones
94
Incidence of diabetes was blunted the best by _______________ (even while metformin was a great drug)
Exercise lifestyle intervention
95
Longest vein in the body (foot to heart)
Saphenous vein
96
__________ can contract _________ as a backup system using _________.
Ventricles, independently, bundle of his
97
__________ can contract _________ as a backup system using _________.
Ventricles, independently, bundle of his
98
The "bad" of hypertrohpy
increased BP, narrowing of aortic valves
99
The "good" of hypertrophy
An appropriate adaptation in endurance athletes
100
What specifically happens in endurance athletes in terms of hypertrophy?
Increased size in LV chamber
101
What specifically happens to a weightlifter during hypertrophy?
Increased LV wall and septum thickens (needs to overcome resistance after overload)
102
Example of an inflammatory mediator that contributes to atherosclerosis
C-reactive protein
103
Saturated/trans fat can contribute to heart disease, however dietary _________ can not.
cholesterol
| Cholesterol deposits can contribute
104
What is preload?
Stretching of myocytes prior to contraction so the ventricle can fill with blood
105
What common vein is used during bypass surgery
Saphenous vein, radial artery
106
Plugging your nose and pushing air out temporarily raises blood pressure and slows heart rate! → helps weightlifter lift heavy weights
Valsalva maneuver
107
Lacking lactase enzyme
Lactose intolerance
108
Gastric lipase is associated with what organ?
Stomach
109
Acts on lipids present inside the micelle structure to cleave fatty acids
Pancreatic Lipase
110
Fatty acids diffuse across the __________
Brush border
111
What happens to lipid after it has been broken down into monoglycerides?
Put back together into triglycerides
112
Where do chlyomicrons get absorbed?
Lymphatic system
113
The colonic epithelium absorbs _________&__________
Water and simple ions
114
Main enery macronutrients
Fat and Carbs
115
Provides us with short burst of energy (during sprint)
Phosphocreatine degradation
116
Aerobic or Anaerobic ATP production
Glycolysis
117
Burning feeling after intense exercise is due to _________?
Lactic acid seperating into lactate and hydrogen protons.
118
Stored in liver and muscle
Carbs
119
Stored in adipocytes
FAt
120
Glucose ____________ when formed in muscle
Doesn't leave
121
___________ is used to make ketones
Glycerol
122
________ can go to nervous system tissue and be oxidized, which occurs when there is excessive fat breakdown
Ketones
123
Why is blood glucose maintained so tightly?
Many cells require glucose
Maintain osmotic balance
Don't want hyperglycemia
124
What could make glucogon levels increase?
Fasting
125
In aging, what contributes to alzherimer’s, cardiovascular disease, and arthritis?
Inflammatory cytokines
126
Autoimmune response
Rheumatoid arthritis
127
Digestive disorder that occurs when acidic stomach juices reverse from the stomach into the esophagus
Gastroesophogeal Reflux Disease
