Final Review Flashcards
(164 cards)
1
Q
People with this fixed-pie perception take one of three mindsets when preparing for a to the negotiaton
A
- Resign themselves to capitulating to the counterparty
- Prepare for hard bargaining with the counterparty
- Compromise in an attempt to reach a midpoint between opposing demands
2
Q
It is commonly assumed that ______________ are necessary by one or both parties to reach an agreement.
A
concessions
3
Q
The fixed-pie perception is almost always ________ and often leads to an ___________ approach to negotiations.
A
wrong, ineffective
4
Q
True or False:
Mixed-motive decision-making is a more accurate model of negotiation that involves both cooperation and competition.
A
True
5
Q
Effective preparation for a negotiation econcompasses three general abilities. They are:
A
- Self-assessment
- Assessment of the counterparty
- Assessment of the situation
6
Q
Identifying what you want may sound straightforward, but three majors problems often arise. The are:
A
- Under-aspiring negotiator (the Winner’s Curse)
- Over-aspiring or positional negotiator
- The grass-is-greener negotiator
7
Q
What is a BATNA?
A
Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement
8
Q
Four things to remember about your BATNA:
A
- Wishful, they are factual
- Time sensitive
- Do not let the other party manipulate your BATNA
- Negotiators should be willing to accept any set of terms superior to their BATNA.
9
Q
Your reservation point is the ___________ of your BATNA.
A
Quantification, with respect to other alternatives.
10
Q
How do you quantify your BATNA?
A
- Brainstorm your alternatives
- Evaluate and order each alternative’s value
- Attempt to improve your BATNA
- Determine your reservation price based on facts.
11
Q
When determining your reservation point, be aware and knowledgeable of the following:
A
- Be aware of focal points
- Beware of sunk costs
- Do not confuse your target point with your reservation point
- Identify the issues in the negotiation
- Identify the alternatives for each issue
- Identify multi-issue proposals of equivalent value
12
Q
Most people are ____-seeking when it comes to losses, and _____risk-averse when it comes to gains.
A
risk, risk
13
Q
____________ points define what people consider to be a gain or a loss.
A
Reference
14
Q
Negotiators should consider the differential impact of three sources of risk. They are:
A
- Strategic Risk - refers to the riskiness of the tactics that negotiators use at the bargaining table
- BATNA risk - given BATNAs of equal expected value, the more risk-averse negotiator will be in a weaker bargaining position.
- Contractual risk- refers to the risk associated with the willingness of the other party to honor its terms.
15
Q
Differences in negotiators’ reference points may lead buyers and sellers to have different __________ for the same object
A
valuations
16
Q
What is the sure thing principle?
A
When faced with uncertainty about an event occurring, people are reluctant to make decisions and will delay decisions until the uncertain event is known.
- Paradox of this situation is that no matter what happens, people choose to do the same thing
- Violations of the sure thing principle are rooted in the reasons people use to make their decisions
- in the presence of uncertainty, people bay be reluctant to think through the implications of each outcome.
17
Q
The overconfidence effect refers to what?
A
A negotiator’s unwarranted level of confidence in the judgment of their abilities and the likelihood of positive events.
- This effect also causes people to underestimate the likelihood of negative events.
- When we find ourselves highly confident of a particular outcome, it is important to examine why we fell this way.
18
Q
What do we need to identify in regards to the other negotiation party?
A
- Who are the other parties?
- Are the parties monolithic?
- Identify counter-parties’ interests and positions
- Research the counter-parties’ BATNAs
19
Q
Research the negotiation:
- Is the negotiation one shot, long term, or repetitive?
- Does the negotiation involve _______ resources or _______?
- Is the negotiation one of _______ or opportunity?
- Is the negotiation a transaction or a ________ situation?
- Are _______ effects present?
- Is __________ required?
A
-scarce, ideologies
- necessity
- dispute
- linkage
- agreement
20
Q
What is ZOPA?
A
Zone of Possible Agreements - represent the range between each party’s reservation points. Can be positive or negative.
21
Q
In a positive bargaining zone, negotiators’ reservation points ________?
A
overlap
22
Q
In a negative bargaining zone, there is no _________ overlap between the parties’ reservation points; therefore, parties should pursue other __________ rather than spending fruitless hours trying to reach an agreement.
A
positive, alternatives
23
Q
The amount of overlap between negotiating parties’ reservation points is called
A
bargaining surplus - it is a measure of the value that a negotiated agreement offers to both parties compared to the value of not reaching a settlement.
24
Q
The negotiators’ surplus is the ____________ difference between the settlement outcome the negotiators’ ___________ point.
A
positive, reservation
25
There are four pie Slicing Strategies:
1. ) Assess your BATNA and improve it
2. ) Determine your reservation point, but do not reveal it
3. ) Research the counterparty's BATNA and estimate their reservation point.
4. ) Set high aspirations. (Be realistic, but optimistic.)
5. ) Make the first offer (if you are prepared)
6. ) Immediately re-anchor if the other party opens first
7. ) Plan your concessions
8. ) Support you offer with facts.
9. ) Appeal to the norms of fairness
10. ) Do not fall for the "even split" ploy.
26
"Face" is the value a person places on his/her _______ ______, reputation and vis-a-vie other people in the negotation.
public image
When a person's "face" is threatened, it can tip the balance of their behavior away from cooperation toward competition, resulting in an impasse.
27
Three fairness principles:
Equality rule: prescribes equal shares for all
Equity rule: prescribes that distribution should be proportional to a person's contribution
Needs-based rule: states that benefits should be proportional to needs
28
Three social comparisons are:
- Upward comparison
- Downward comparison
- Comparison with similar others
29
A number of goals and motives drive social comparisons, such as:
- Self-improvement
- Self-enhancement
- Accurate self-evaluation
30
Equity exists in a relationship if:
each person's outcomes are proportional to his or her inputs. Complications arise if two people have different views of what constitutes a legitimate investment, cost, or reward and how they rank each other.
31
People use the following means to eliminate the tension arising from equality:
- Alter the inputs
- Alter the outcomes
- Cognitively distort inputs or outcomes
- Leave the situation
- Cognitively distort either the inputs or the outcomes of an exchange partner
- Change the object of comparison
32
Procedural Justice - people evaluate not only the _________ of outcomes but also the fairness of the procedures by which those outcomes are determined
fairness - People's evaluations of procedural fairness determine their satisfaction and willingness to comply with outcomes.
33
Egocentric ___________ of responsibility and fairness are attributable to the ways in which people process information, such as:
1. ) selective encoding and memory
2. ) Differential retrieval
3. ) Informational disparity
judgments
34
What guidelines should we live by when slicing the pie?
- Consistency
- Simplicity
- Effectiveness
- Justifiability
- Consensus
- Generalization
- Satisfaction
35
What is the most valuable piece of information when it comes to slicing the pie?
A negotiator's BATNA
36
Negotiators should not reveal their _______ _________ and never lie about their __________
reservation price, BATNA
37
A negotiator who is well versed in the ___________ of _________ is at a pie-slicing advantage.
psychology, fairnessiatio
38
A win-win negotiation does NOT equate to any of the following actions:
-Compromise
-Even split
-Satisfaction
-Building a relationship
Win-win negotiation really means that all creative opportunities are leveraged and no resources are left on the table - we call these outcomes integrative negotiations.
39
The following are questions for negotiators to ask when assessing the potential of a negotiation situation:
- Does the negotiation contain more than one issue?
- Can other issues be brought in?
- Can side deals be made?
- Do the parties have different preferences across negotiation issues?
40
Most common pie-expanding Errors:
- False conflict - The lose-lose effect
| - Fixed-pie perception - thinking that conflicts are purely win or lose situations
41
Most commonly used win-win strategies:
- Commitment to reaching a win-win deal
- Compromise
- Focusing on a long-term relationship
- Adopting a "cooperative orientation"
- Taking extra time to negotiate
42
Effective Pie-Expanding Strategies:
- Perspective-taking
- Ask questions about interests and priorities
- Reveal information about your interests and priorities
- Unbundle the issues
- Logrolling and value-added trade-offs
- Make package deals, not single-issue offers
- Make multiple offers of equivalent value simultaneously
- Structure contingency contracts by capitalizing on differences
- Pre-settlement settlements
- Search for post-settlement settlements
43
The framework of an integrative negotiation has five major components:
- Resource assessment
- Assessment of differences
- Offers and trade-offs
- Acceptance/rejection decision
- Prolonging negotiation and renegotiation
44
True or False:
| Negotiators are usually not aware that their outcomes are inefficient
True
45
True or False:
| Key reasons for lose-lose outcomes are illusory conflict and the fixed-pie perception
True
46
A ___________ ____________ is a group of three or more individuals, each representing his or her own interests, attempting to resolve perceived differences of interest.
Multiparty negotiation
47
Four challenges of multiparty negotiations:
- Dividing resources
- Coalitions
- Formulating trade-off
- Voting and majority rule
48
Majority rule fails to recognize the strength of individual preferences
True
49
Strategies negotiators can use to enhance their ability to expand and slice the pie in a multiparty context.
- Know who will be at the table
- Manage the information and systemize proposal making
- Brainstorm options
- Develop and assign process roles
- Stay at the table
- Strive for equal participation
- Allow for some points of agreement, even if only on process
- Avoid the "equal shares" bias
- Avoid the agreement bias
- Avoid sequential bargaining
50
Coalitions face three set of challenges:
- The formation and size optimizations of the coalition
- Trust formation and maintenance in coalitions
- The complex distribution of resources among members
51
Interpersonal strategies for effectively navigating coalitions and maximizing their effectiveness:
- Make your contacts early
- Seek verbal commitments
- Use unbiased-appearing rationale to divide the pie
52
Advantages to using Principal-Agent Negotiations:
- Expertise
- Substantive knowledge
- Networks and special influence
- Emotional detachment
- Ratification
- Face-saving
53
Dis-advantages to Principal-agent negotiations:
- Shrinking ZOPA
- Incompatible incentive structure
- loss of control
- Agreement at any cost
54
Strategies for negotiators who want to work effectively with agents:
- shop around
- Know your BATNA before meeting with your agent
- Communicate your interests to your agent without giving away your BATNA
- Capitalize on the agents' expertise
- Tap into your agent's sources of information
- Use agent networks
55
The following are strategies for negotiators who want to work effectively with agents:
-Discuss ratification
-Use your agent to help save face
-Use your agent to buffer emotions
(principle agent relationship - Real estate agents)
56
Constituent relationship - a constituent is ostensibly on the side as the principle negotiator, but exerts and independent influence on the outcome through the principle negotiator
YEAH!!!!
57
Challenges for constituent relationships:
- Behind the table barriers
- Accountability
- Conflicts of interest
58
Strategies for improving constituent relationships:
- Communicate with your constituents
- Do not expect homogeneity of constituent views
- Educate your constituents on your role and limitations
- Help your constituents do horizon thinking
59
Team Negotiations increase the incidence of integrative agreements Advantages are:
- Increased size of negotiating pie
- Increased information exchange amongst negotiating parties
- Increased information exchange which leads to greater judgment accuracy about parties' interests
- Integrative agreements are promoted
60
Challenges for Team Negotiation:
- Teammate selection
- Number of people on the negotiating team
- Communication on the team
- Team cohesion
- Information processing ( the common information bias)
61
Improvement Strategies for Team Negotiation:
- Goal and strategy alignment
- Preparing together for the negotiation
- Plan scheduled breaks
- Assess accountability
62
Challenges for Inter-group negotiation:
- Shared versus individual identity
- in-group bias
- Extremism
63
Strategies for optimizing inter-group negotiations such as:
- Separate conflict of interest from symbolic conflict
- Search for common identity
- Avoid the out-group homogeneity bias
- Conditions required before contact
- The GRIT model strategy
64
True of False:
| Multiparty negotiations require all of the pie-slicing and pie-expanding skills of two-party negotiations
True
65
Key challenges of multiparty negotiations:
- development and management of coalitions
- complexity of information management
- voting rules
- communication breakdowns
66
True or False:
| Negotiators who have power are in a position to claim the lion's share of resources
True
67
Power in a negotiation can be analyzed in terms or four vantage points:
- Potential power
- Perceived power
- Power tactics
- Realized power
68
To fully capitalized your BATNA, wisely use the following information:
- Keep your _______ open.
- Signal your _____, but do not reveal it.
- Asses the _______ ________ BATNA
- options
- BATNA
- other party's
69
Another source of power in negotiation is based on a negotiator's ability to influence others:
Social power- the power a negotiator has over other people
Personal power - the freedom a negotiator has from dependency on others
WOOT! Keep studying!!!
70
How is value created in symmetric, high-power dyads?
Value creation is associated with increased mutual accommodation.
71
How is value created in symmetric, low-power dyads?
Value creation is associated with greater contentiousness.
72
How do you maximize value creation in an asymmetric-power dyads?
Maximize value creation when they adopt a neutral stance.
73
Power has a number of social and cognitive effects on the power-user, such as:
- Power decreases social awareness (and accuracy)
- Power increases feelings of control
- Power increases risk-taking
- Power is triggered by situations and stimuli.
74
Low-power negotiators are particularly susceptible to the emotions of the other party and consequently ____ _____ and yield ground when they face a powerful, emotional counter-party.
lose focus
75
Less powerful negotiators can grow in _________, believing they are constantly scrutinized and evaluated by those higher in power.
paranoia
76
True or False:
| Negotiators with less power are highly accurate in perceiving the behaviors and attitudes of those with higher power.
True
77
Power is the ________ a negotiator holds to influence others or the course of events
potential
78
Status is the _________ ________ ________ or rank given to negotiators or groups by others
relative social position
79
What are the three PRIMARY status characteristics: (indicators of legitimate authority)
Rank, degree, title
80
What are the SECONDARY status characteristics:
Cues and attributes that have no legitimate bearing on the allocation of resources or on the norms of interaction, but nevertheless exert a powerful influence on behavior.
81
True or False:
| Women set lower aspirations (and therefore asked for less) in their opening offers than do men
True
82
Four key reasons that act as barriers for women asking for what they want:
1. ) They don't feel a given situation is a negotiation
2. ) They think they will be given things when they "deserve" them.
3. ) They do not establish aggressive goals
4. ) They do not want to damage the relationship
83
What strategies can help female negotiators attain better outcomes at the negotiation table?
- Stereotype regeneration
- Remove ambiguity from novel-appearing situations
- Negotiate on behalf of a constituency
84
True or False:
| Women who "ask" or self advocate are viewed more positively than men who self-advocate
False
85
What is a given statement that may be defined as fraudulent when the speaker makes a knowing misrepresentation of a material fact on which the victim reasonably relies and it causes damage?
Lying
86
Other strategies that may be considered unethical:
- Traditional competitive bargaining
- Manipulation of an opponent's network
- Reneging on negotiated network
- Retracting an offer
- Nickel-and-diming
87
Sins of __________ are regarded as more unethical than sins of ___________.
Commission (active lying), omission
88
Under what conditions do negotiators engage in deception?
- The lure of temptation
- Uncertainty
- Powerlessness
- Anonymity of victims
- Perspective-taking in a competitive context
89
Human biases that give rise to ethical problems in negotiation, such as:
- Bounded ethicality
- Illusion of superiority
- Illusion of control
- Overconfidence
90
Five ways negotiators can calibrate ethical behavior?
- Front-page test
- Reverse golden rule
- Role modeling
- Third-party advice
- Strengthen your bargaining position
91
People have different orientations toward the process of negotiation:
- Individualistic
- Competitive
- Cooperative
92
Seven tools for the overly cooperative negotiator:
1. ) Avoid concentrating too much on your bottom line
2. ) Develop your BATNA
3. ) Get an agent and delegate the negotiation work
4. ) Bargaining on behalf of someone or something else, not yourself
5. ) Create an audience
6. ) Say "You will have to do better than that because..." instead of saying Yes
7. ) Insist on commitments, not just agreements.
93
Seven tools for the overly competitive negotiator:
1. ) Think about pie-expansion, not just pie-slicing
2. ) Ask more questions than you think you should
3. ) Rely on standards
4. ) Hire a relationship manager
5. ) Be scrupulously reliable
6. ) Do not haggle when you can negotiate
7. ) Always acknowledge the other party and protect that person's self-esteem.
94
Several strategic issues that are relevant when it comes to motivational style:
- The myth of the hard bargainer
- Do not lose sight of your own interests
- Social comparison can cause breakdowns in negotiation
- Use reinforcement to shape behavior
- The power of reciprocity
95
Three types of approaches when in the process of dispute resolution:
1. ) Interests
2. ) Rights
3. ) Power
96
Interests-based negotiators:
- Attempt to learn about the counter-party's needs, desires, and concerns
- Attempt to reconcile different interests among parties in a way that addresses the parties' most pressing needs and concerns
97
Rights-based negotiators:
- Apply standards of fairness to an analysis of the negotiation
- May include terms specified by contracts, legal rights, precedents, or expectations based upon norms
98
Power-based negotiators:
- Focus on power use (status, rank, threats, intimidation)
| - Coerce someone to do something he or she wouldn't otherwise do because of costs imposed upon them or threats issued.
99
Negotiators should keep the following principles in mind when choosing their approach:
- Principle of reciprocity
- Interests are effective for pie expansion
- How to refocus your opponent on interests (and move them from rights and power)
100
Personal strategies to refocus your opponent on interests and away from rights and power include:
- Do not reciprocate
- Provide opportunities to meet
- Don't get personal - use self-discipline
- Use behavioral reinforcement
- Send a mixed message
- Try a process intervention
- Let's talk and then fight
- Strategic cooling-off periods
- Use paraphrasing
- Label the process
101
Structural strategies to refocus your opponent on interests and away from rights and power include:
- Put the focus on interests
- Build in "loop-backs" to negotiation
- Provide low-cost rights and power backups
- Build in consultation beforehand and feedback afterwards
- Provide skills and resources
102
Strategic advice for dealing with emotions at the table:
- Monitor your emotional displays
- Beware of what you are reinforcing
- Reevaluation is more effective than suppression
- Emotions are contagious
- Understand emotional triggers
103
Three dimensions of Culture are:
- Individualism versus collectivism
- Egalitarianism versus hierarchy
- Direct versus indirect communication
104
Aspects of an individualistic culture include:
- The pursuit of happiness and regard for personal welfare are paramount
- People give priority to their personal goals, even when those goals conflict with those of their group
- Individual happiness and expression are valued more than collective and group needs
- People enjoy having influence and control over their world and others
- Individual accomplishments are rewarded by economic and social institutions
- Legal institutions are designed to protect individual rights
105
Aspects of a collectivistic culture include:
- Culture rooted in social groups and individuals are viewed as members of groups
- People view their in-groups as fundamental parts of themselves and give priority to in-group goals
- people are concerned about how the results of their actions affect members of their in-group
- Resources are shared with in-group members
- Emphasis is placed on the importance of adjustment, harmony, and the sacrifice of personal needs for the greater good.
- Legal institutions place the greater good of the collective above the rights of the individual.
106
Aspects of egalitarian power culture:
- Everyone expects to be treated equally
- Egalitarian power relationships do not mean that everyone is of equal status, but that status differences are easily permeated
- Members are empowered to resolve conflict themselves
- In egalitarian cultures, a negotiator's BATNA and information are key sources of power.
107
Aspects of hierarchical power culture:
- Great deference is paid to status
- Status implies social power and is not easily permeated or changed
- Social inferiors are expected to defer to social superiors who are obligated to look out for the needs of social inferiors
- Conflict between members of the same social rank in hierarchical cultures is more likely to be handled by deference to a superior than by direct confrontation between social equals.
108
In cultures with DIRECT communication norms:
- Messages are transmitted explicitly and directly
- Communications are action-oriented and solution-minded.
- Information is provided without nuance and is context free.
- Negotiators often ask direct questions about interests and alternatives
109
In cultures with INDIRECT communication norms:
- People avoid direct confrontation when conflict occurs.
- The meaning of communication is inferred rather than directly interpreted.
- The context of the message stimulates pre-existing knowledge that is then used to gain understanding
- People prefer sharing information indirectly, telling stories to influence their opponents, and gleaning information from proposals
110
Some countries that have Direct communication cultures are:
Germany, United States, Switzerland, Scandinavian cultures
111
Some countries that have InDirect communication cultures are:
Japan, Russia, France, Saudi Arabia, Mediterranean people.
112
Key Challenges of Intercultural Negotiation
- Expanding the pie
- Dividing the pie
- Sacred values and taboo trade-offs
- Biased punctuation of conflict
- Ethnocentrism
- Affiliation bias
- Faulty perceptions of conciliation and coercion
- Naive realism
113
Predictors of success in Intercultural Interactions:
- People who think in terms of conceptual complexity and broad categories
- Empathy
- Sociability
- Critical acceptance of stereotypes
- Openness to different points of view
- Interest in the host culture
- Task Orientation
- Cultural flexibility
- Social orientation
- Willingness to communicate
- Patience
- Intercultural sensitivity
- Tolerance for differences among people
- Sense of humor
- Skills in collaborative conflict resolution
114
Advice for cross-cultural negotiations:
- Anticipate differences in strategy and tactics that may cause misunderstandings
- Cultural perspective taking
- Recognize that the other party may not share your views of what constitutes power
- Avoid attribution errors
- Find out how to show respect in the other culture
- Find out how time is perceived in the other culture
- Know your options for change
115
Advice for international negotiators
1. ) Acknowledge differences at the individual and societal levels
2. ) Trade off differences in preferences and abilities
3. ) Ask questions to ensure understanding of the other party's perspective
4. ) Understand the norms and their underlying meanings
5. ) Avoid arguing the inherent legitimacy of a social system
6. ) Be prepared to manage bureaucratic interactions with governments
116
Explicit negotiations:
Situations in which people seek to reach mutual agreement via binding contract
117
Cooperative negotiations:
- Contract is explicit
- Mutual understanding (people know what they are getting before they agree.)
- People negotiate via proposals and counterpuse words to proposals and can use words to explain and justify their offers
- People usually come to the table voluntarily
118
Non-cooperative Negotiations:
- Contract is tacit
- People often do not know what others will do
- People negotiate through their behaviors and actions (rather than their promises of what they will do)
- People are often pulled into negotiations without wanting to be involved.
119
Tacit negotiations:
- Negotiators are interdependent with respect to outcomes, but make independent decisions.
- Negotiators' are determined by the actions they take and the actions taken by others
- People can behave either in a cooperative fashion or competitive fashion.
120
The situation that results when people engage in behaviors that maximize self-interests but lead to collective disaster is called a:
Social dilemma.
| Examples of a social dilemma are: bidding war, negative campaigning, and greenhouse gases
121
Explain the Prisoner's Dilemma:
-When each person in the prisoner's game pursues the course of action that is most rational from their point of view and in their individual self-interest, the result is mutual disaster. The choices that persons make in this game are either cooperation or defection
122
How can an escalating spiral of defection be brought to an end? (The Prisoner's Dilemma):
- Make promises
- Make situational attributions
- Take one step at a time
- Getting even and catching up
- Make your decisions at the same time
123
Explain the Ultimatum Decision:
-In an ultimatum bargaining situation, one person (the proposer) makes a final offer (an ultimatum). If the other party (the responder) accepts the offer, then the proposer receives the demand and the responder agrees to accept what was offered to him or her. If the offer is refused, then no settlement is reached and the negotiators receive their respective reservation points.
124
What are several factors that determine the likelihood that the responder will accept the offer made by the proposer (Ultimatum Decisions):
- Complete versus incomplete information
- Framing
- Deadlines
- Feelings and emotions
- Social identity
125
Explain the Dictator Game:
In the dictator game, the proposer makes a suggested split of resources for herself and the responder. The responder must accept the split. On the surface, it would seem that in such a situation the responder would keep everything for herself, given that the responder has no say in the matter. A striking number of proposers (dictators) choose to give the responder a non-zero allocation.
126
Explain the Trust Game:
In the trust game, the first move is made by the proposer's partner, the trustor, who must decide how much of his or her initial endowment to trust the proposer with, in hopes of receiving some of it back. The rules of the game specify that the gift that the trustor makes to the trustee will be increased by some factor. Behavior in trust games involves possible deception if the partner is trusting.
127
Explain the volunteer dilemma:
This is a schema in which one person in a group must sacrifice their interests to benefit the group. Communication increases volunteering and the act of volunteering strengthens group ties. Feelings of obligation to one's group, expectation of extrinsic rewards, and identifying with one's organization all significantly increase volunteerism.
128
Multiparty dilemma - people behave more competitively in groups than in two-person situations - why?
- The costs of defection are spread out.
- Multiparty social dilemmas are riskier than prisoner's dilemmas
- Multiparty social dilemmas provide anonymity that prisoner's dilemmas do not
- People in multiparty social dilemmas have less control over the situation
129
The hallmark characteristic of social dilemmas is that the rational pursuit of self-interest is detrimental to the collective welfare - a.ka. ____ _______ ____ ____ _____.
The Tragedy of the Commons. - Unless limits are placed on the pursuit of personal goals, the entire society may suffer
130
Structural strategies involve fundamental changes in the ways that social dilemmas are constructed and often require and act of government to enact:
- Align incentives
- Monitor behavior
- Regulation
- Privatizationacts
- Tradable permits
131
Psychological strategies are usually engaged in by the organizational actor and are inexpensive:
- Psychological contracts and the norm of commitment
- Economics
- Communication
- Personalize others
- Social Sanctions
- Focus on benefits of cooperation
132
How do you encourage cooperation in multiparty social dilemmas when the negotiating parties should not collude:
- Keep your strategy simple
- Signal via actions
- Do not be the first to defect
- Focus on your own payoffs, not your payoffs relative to others
- Be sensitive to egocentric bias.
133
The ___________ ___ __________ refers to the unfortunate tendency of negotiators to persist with a losing course of action, even in the face of clear evidence that their behaviors are not working and the negotiation situation is quickly deteriorating.
Escalation of commitment
134
There are five ways to avoid the escalation of commitment in negotiations:
- Set limits
- Avoid decision myopia
- Recognize sunk costs
- Diversity responsibility and authority
- Redefine the situation
135
Negotiators' mental models shape their behavior and affect the course of negotiation. Name the five models:
- Haggling model
- Cost-benefit analysis (decision-making model)
- Game-playing model
- Partnership model
- Problem-solving model
136
What are the characteristic of truly creative negotiations:
- Breaking single-issue negotiations into multiple issues
- Finding differences: looking for patterns in offers
- Expanding the pie
- Bridging
- Cost cutting
- Nonspecific compensation
- Structuring contingencies
137
Contingency contracts allow negotiators to:
- ____________ conflict and make the differences of opinion concerning future evens the core of the agreement, rather than divisive.
- Make differences ___________.
- Allow negotiators to test the counterparty's veracity in a non-confrontational manner, allowing parties to _____ ____ and safeguard their interests
- Build ______ and ______ ______ between negotiators
- Neutralize
- constructive
- save face
- trust and good faith
138
Threats to Effective Problem Solving and Creativity:
- The inert knowledge problem
- Availability heuristic
- Representativeness
- Anchoring and adjustment
- Unwarranted causation
- Belief perseverance
- Illusory correlation
- Just world
- Hindsight bias
- Functional fixedness
- Set effect (negative transfer)
- Selective attention
- Overconfidence effect
- The limits of short-term memory
139
Techniques for Enhancing Creative Negotiation Agreements:
- Incubation
- Rational problem-solving model
- Brainstorming
- Deductive reasoning
- Inductive reasoning
140
Face-to-Face communication is relatively _______ whereas written messages are _________.
rich, lean
141
Richness describes the potential __________ _________ __________ of a communication medium.
information-carrying capacity
142
Face-to-face communications:
- Crucial in the initiation of relationships and collaborations
- Encourages cooperation in negotiations
- Fosters the development of interpersonal synchrony and rapport
- The incidence and frequency of face-to-face communication is determined by how closely people are located to one another
143
Same time, different-place communications:
Parties negotiate in real time, but are not physically in the same place
144
Different time, same-place communication
Negotiations interact asynchronously, but have access to the same physical document or space.
Example: shift workers who pick up the task left for them by the previous shift worker
145
Different time, different-place communications:
Negotiators communicate asynchronously from different places.
The most ubiquitous type of different-time different-place communication is e-mail.
146
How does information technology affect negotiation performance?
- Negotiators who communicate face-to-face are more likely to reach deals and avoid impasses than are negotiators
- The likelihood of reaching a mutually profitable negotiation is a function of the richness of the communication
- Computer-mediated negotiations were equal to or more integrative than face-to-face communications, and outcomes were judged to be fairer and more equal in value
147
Technology has an extremely powerful affect on several aspects of social behavior.
- Trust and deception
- Status and power
- Social networks
- Risk taking
- Rapport and social norms
- Paranoia
- Inter-generational
148
Information technology and its affects on social networks:
- Computerized interaction increases resources of low-network people
- Some companies need to rely on electronic modes of communication for employees to form connections with each other.
- E-mail provides alternate routes to letting people have a voice if they are low contributors in face-to-face meetings
149
Information technology and its affects on risk taking:
- Framing effect
- Groups make riskier decisions than individuals, given the same choices
- paradoxically, groups that communicate electronically are risk-seeking for both gains and losses.
150
Information technology and its affects on rapport:
- The greater the face-to-face contact and rapport between negotiations, the more integrative their outcomes are likely to be.
- Rapport is more difficult to establish with impoverished mediums of communications
- Independent observers judged face-to-face negotiators to be more "in-sync" with each other
151
What strategies can be employed to enhance successful pie-expansion and pie-slicing in Technology-mediated negotiations?
- Initial face-to-face experience
- One-day video conference/teleconference
- Schmoozing
- Humor
152
What are effective Pie-expanding strategies:
1. ) Perspective-taking
2. ) Ask questions about interests and priorities
3. ) Reveal information about your interests and priorities
4. ) Un-bundle the issues
5. ) Logrolling and value-added trade-offs
6. ) Make package deals, not single-issue offers
7. ) Make multiple offers of equivalent value simultaneously
8. ) Structure contingency contracts by capitalizing on differences
9. ) Pre-settlement settlements
10. ) Search for post-settlements
153
Rights-based negotiators:
- Apply standards of fairness to an analysis of the negotiations
- May include terms specified by contracts, legal rights, precedents, or expectations based upon norms.
154
Power-based negotiators:
- Focus on power use (status, rank, threats,intimidation)
| - Coerce someone to do something he or she wouldn't otherwise do because of costs imposed upon them or threats issued.
155
The people side of win-win: A successful win-win negotiations is not just about money or economic value.
The true definition of a win-win in an agreement is one that allows negotiators to fully maximize whatever negotiatiors care about, which can include:
- Love
- Money
- Services
- Goods
- Status
- Information
156
There are three types of trust in relationships:
1. ) Defference based trust
2. ) Knowledge based trust
3. ) Indentification based trust
157
Deferrence based trust:
- Expensive to develop and maintain behavioral monitoring systems
- Backfiring effect (reactance theory)
158
Knowledge-based trust:
- Grounded in behavioral predictability
| - Increases dependence and commitment among parties
159
Identification based trust:
- Grounded in complete empathy with another person's desires and intentions
- Means other people have adopted your own preference
160
The two routes to building trust are:
Cognitive route - based on rational and deliberate thoughts and considerations
Affective route - based on intuition and emotion
161
How does a person build trust through cognitive means of influence?
- Transform personal conflict into task conflict
- Agree on a common goal or shared vision
- Capitalize on network connections
- Find a shared problem or a shared enemy
- Focus on the future
162
What psychological (affective route) strategies can be used to build trust between parties?
- Similarity
- Mere exposure
- Physical presence
- reciprocity
- Schmoozing
- Flattery
- Mimicry and mirroring
- self-affirmation
163
What situations lead to mistrust?
- Breaches or defections
- Mis-communication
- Dispositional attributions
- Focusing on the "bad apple"
164
Steps to repairing broken trust:
```
Step 1: Arrange a personal meeting
Step 2: Put the focus on the relationship
Step 3: Apologize
Step 4: Let them vent
Step 5: Do not get defensive
Step 6: Ask for clarifying
Step 7: Test your understanding
Step 8: Formulate a plan
Step 9: Think about ways to prevent a future problem
Step 10: Do a relationship check-up
```
