Final study cards Flashcards
(81 cards)
1
Q
Cotext
A
text which comes before or after utterance
2
Q
Circumstances of utterance
A
-physical circumstances in which expression is uttered
3
Q
exophor
A
expression whose full understanding requires knowledge of the setting in which they are uttered (your and my)
- character- invariant aspect
- person, time,spacial
4
Q
content
A
-meaning of utterance when it is filled out by a suitable knowledge of the setting in which it is used
5
Q
Endophora
A
-dependence- third person personal pronoun
-endophor/ proform- words exhibiting this dependence
“He was driving it today”
-demonstrative, “one”, it, he/she/they, “the bastard”, “so”, “there”, “such”
-Can be any constituent, antecedent can be anything,
-Most common- third person pronoun
6
Q
Ellipsis
A
-dependence
-“Ed a porsche”
=Not a full constituent
-Varies with what preceding clause presents
-Fails to convey a proposition unless in the presence of another constituent
7
Q
Antecedent
A
-relevant portion of the cotext necessary for full understanding
8
Q
Gapping
A
-Ellipsis
- two constituents, neither of which is a constituent of the other
-correspond to first and final constituents of sentence before
“Peter saw the movie and susan ___ the play”
9
Q
Interrogative ellipses
A
-Ellipses
-Antecedent entire clause,
-Ellipses for interrogative constituent, standing for ind clause
“Ed bought a mercedes”
“Where ____”
10
Q
Verb phrase ellipses
A
- ellipses
- VP is antecedent
- The man who promised to bring wine will.
- to do can be used
11
Q
Copular complement ellipses
A
-ellipses
-verb to be in context
“Bill is fond of cheese and mary is ____ too”
12
Q
Appended coordination
A
- Ellipses
- One or two phrases appended, often introduced by a coordinating conjunction (and, but)
- Fred goes to the cinema but __ seldom __ with his friends
13
Q
Nominal ellipses
A
Antecedent noun phrase, defective expression is one containing constituent that is a sister to the noun
“Colleen ate two large cookies and evan ate three”
14
Q
Ambiguity
A
use of alternate truth value judgement to determine ambiguity relies on fixed state of affairs and fixed setting, while use of alternate truth judgement to determine exophora relies on a change in setting and cotext
15
Q
Implicature
A
- “i have a cat” implies i do not have 20 cats
- enrichment which is obtained on the basis of utterances literal meaning as well as beliefs about maxims
16
Q
Entailment
A
- relation between a set of statements and a single statement- “all men are mortal socrates is a man” entails “socrates is mortal”
- Can be once sentence “wellington was taller than napoleon” entials “napoleon was shorter than wellington”
17
Q
Cooperation
A
- maxim
- one should make ones contribution such as is required, by the accepted purpose or direction of the conversation
18
Q
Quality
A
- Maxim
- One should have adequate evidence for what one says, should not say what one believes is false
19
Q
Quantity
A
-Maxim, One should contribute as much information as is required for purpose of conversation
20
Q
Relevance
A
-ones remarks should be relevant
21
Q
Manner
A
-One should be perspicuous- brief orderly, clear, unambiguous
22
Q
Non-conventionality
A
- Conversational implicatures not conventional
- Can have implicature in some situations, not in others
- Not same as idioms
23
Q
Non-detachability
A
- implicatures invariant under paraphrase
- Ex. sarcastic “bill is genius” same implicature as sarcastic “bill is mental prodigy”
24
Q
Derivability
A
-Implicatures Can by characterized by form of reasoning
25
Cancellability
-Implicatures can be undone or cancelled by further information
26
Implicature ambiguity
-When ambiguity is solved by additional sentence, literal meaning not changed but implicatures can be
27
presupposition
-supposes previous information to make sense- did you quit smoking presupposes that you used to smoke
28
Triggers of presupposition
- again, even, still, too
- various verbs - continue, desire, admit, return
- cleft
- if
- when/ since
29
valid arguement
truth of premisses guarantees truth of conclusion
30
denial of the antecedent
fallacy- if p then q, it is not the case that p, then not q
31
modus tollens
if p then q, not q, then not p
32
syncategorematic defintion of set of formulae
- all propositional variabls are formulae
- any formula with not is a formula and a pair of formulae with connector and enclosed with parenthesis is a formula
- nothing else is a formula
33
categorematic definition of set of formulae
- adds category of UC (unary connective like not), and BC binary connective
- otherwise same as syncategorematic
34
atomic formulae (AF) vs composite formulae (CF) vs basic formulae (BF)
- Atomic- just PV
- CF- more complex
- BF- atomic + negations
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immediate subformula
-one formula is immediate subformula if it can either be prefixed by negation or paired with another formula and BC +parenthesis to form the second
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proper subformula
-immediate subformula or immediate subformula of immediate subformula etc
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subformula
- proper subformula or the whole equation
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scope of propositional connective
scope of occurance of prop connective is subformula which contains the prop connective but whose subformulae do not
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parenthesis abbreviation
- omit for whole formula
| - omit for conjuncts of conjunct, adjuncts of adjuncts
40
truth value assignment
```
function from domain (PV) to codomain including {T,F}
-bivalent assignment- truth value assignment whose co domain is only t and f
```
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valuation
any function where domain is FM and codomain includes T and F
-classical valuation- valuation that conforms to connective true and false values
42
extention to a classical valuation (syncategorematic)
a bivalent assignment classically extends to a unique classical valuation
43
extention to a classical valuation( categorematic
o sub not, o sub V, o sub ^ etc,
44
satisfaction
bivalent assignment a and each formula x, a satisfies x iff va(x) = T
for a and set of formulae y, a satisfies y iff for each xEy, va(y) = T
- for bivalent ass. a, and formula y, a satisfies y iff a satisfies {y}
- bivalent assignment satisfies empty set
45
tautology
-formula is tautology iff each bivalent assignment satisfies it
46
contradiction
-formula is a contradiction iff each bivalent assignment doesnt satisfy it
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contingency
a formula is a contingency iff some bivalent assignment satisfies it, some does not
48
satisfiability
- formula satisfiable if some bivalent assignment satisfies it
- formuale set satisfiable if some bivalent ass satisfies it
- y satisfieable if {y} satisfiable
- each subset of satisfiable set is satisfiable
- empty is satisfiable
49
unsatisfiability
formula is unsatisfiable if no biv ass satisfies it, set same
y is unsatis. iff {y} is unsatis.
each superset of unsatisfiable set forms unsatis. set
FM is unsatisfiable
50
semantic equivelence
set of formula or formula is sem. equivalent if each biv ass satisfies former and latter
- all tautologies are sem equiv
- all tautologies are sem equiv to empty set
- all contr. and sets of contr. are sem equiv
- all contr and sets of contr are sem equiv to FM
51
entailment (formula)
a and b are formulae, x and y are sets
if a E x then x entails a
if c subs y and x entails a, y entails a
x U {a} entails b iff x entails a then b
x entails a and b iff x entails a and x entails b
52
Coordinators vs Subordinators
```
C S
intrusion N N
connect verb phrases Y N
admits gapping Y N
may iterate N Y
initial in compound clause N Y
```
53
syndetic vs asyndetic coordination
-syndetic uses "and" while asyndetic uses none
54
CPDL
-classical predicate logic
=basic expressions are predicates (relational symbols) (constants) and idividual symbols rather than PV
-
55
CPDL notation
- Adicity- CPDL term for number of places relational symbol has (transitivity)
- IS- individual symbols
- RS- relational symbols
56
CPDL Signature
let (IS, RS, ad) be a sig for CPDL iff IS and RS are disjoint sets and ad is a function from RS into Z+
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Atomic formula of CPDL
n place relational symbol followed by n occurences of individual symbols
58
Formula of CPDL
- Atomic formula
- if a E FM and b E FM then ab E FM
- if a, b E FM and c E BC, a c b E FM
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Other CPDL terms
-Basic formula, immediate subformula, proper subformula, scope definition all same as CPL
60
problems with english and and ^ comparisson
- Mary does too and peter owns a car bad, flipped is good.
- and can be "and then"
- all issues with and also happen without and in ; sentences- more issues with maxims, presupposition, etc.
61
coordination of nondeclarative clauses by and/ or/ if
- no truth value to question or command, but and still works for them, so and is different than ^
- hard to explain what and means in this context, but imperative compliance conditions and interrogative answerhood conditions can be seen as like truth values
- c-entailment (compliance) allows for entailment relation without declarative truth value (same with a-entailment)
62
coordination of an imperative and a declarative by and / or/ if(or NP and declarative)
- paraphrase of if then statement
| - --> instead of ^
63
Problems with or/V
- apparent exclusivity of or
- exclusivity is an implicature (can be cancelled by follow up sentence
- can also be explained by 2 meanings of or
- apparent non-commutability- can be solved with "or rather" or "or else"
64
apparent synonymity of or and and
-either you may have coffee or you may have tea does entail both parts (may just be implicatures)
65
conditional clauses
-if sentences
=protasis (subordinate)
=apodosis (main clause)
-more or less corresponds to -->
66
prolems with if/-->
- negation of conditionals0 it is not the case that, if god is dead, everything is permitted doesn't ential god is dead
- non-declaratives
- subjenctuve conditionals- counterfactual (would have)
- austinian conditionals- if it snows, tehre is a shovel in the trunk.
67
adjunctive vs disjuctive subordinator
-adjunctive- cleft, pseudo-cleft, form a single clause answer, can be immediately preceded by focus adverb, may form question, can be immediately preceded by not
68
not syntax
- it is not the case that same as UC not
- not is often adverb
- more restricted in finite than infinite clauses, except with to be
- can be used as implicature, to deny presupposition
69
CQL
-quantificational logic
-CPDL but with variables, A, E
=binding
-closed (no unbound) vs open
-alphabetical variants- terms with quantifiers same regardless of variable, not true with un-quantified
70
syncategorematic definitions of valuation of CQL
- medieval valuations - each corresponds with and while some corresponds with or. everything must be finite and named individually, if repeats it doesnt work. valuation departs from the synthesis tree of a formula once truth value has to be assigned a subformula whose main LC is a quantifier
- marcus valuations- finite universes- Universally A formula is true iff each substitution instance is true in it. E formula is true iff a substitution works
- fregean valuations- to see if AxPx is true, substitute every possible value of a for a, check them all
- Tarski- variable assignment and defined truth in a structure at variable assignment, only one where domain s the set of all formulae, open and closed
71
Satisfaction
- (M,g) satisfies a iff [a]M,g = T
- true with set
- (M,g) satisfies Ø, (M,g) satisfies a iff (M,g) satisfies {a}
72
Properties of CQL
-tautology, contradiction, contingency, satisfiability, unsatisfiability, semantic equivelence
73
Minimal clause
clause in declarative mood with smallest number of minimal constituents.
-Constituent has a head and complements
74
complement polyvalence
-many verbs with a complement admit different syntactic categories as the complement (appeared for ex)
75
complement permutation
- verb that admits complement permutation- for alice has to become an NP (just alice) to switch the order in "bill bought alice a dog"
- or alternation like Alice blamed bill FOR the accident, alice blamed the accident ON bill
76
Verb phrase
- optional complements
- also reflexive polyadic verbs, reciprocal polyadic verbs
- indefinite polyadic (to read)
- contextual polyadic- when relevant complement is omitted, verb behaves endo/exophorically
- Causative polyadic- melt
- mid
77
Adj Phrase
- may be modifiers or predicates, some adj can only be one, some can be both
- No compliment like dead
- PP compliment like averse to
- S- unsure where it is raining
- Some polyadic like happy
- reciprocal polyadic adj
- often different meanings of adj w diff adicity
78
Prepositions
- many take NP compliments, some take S compliments
- optional compliment- in - he ran in
- Polyadic P only contextual
- Complementless- afterwards, downstairs, soon
79
Nouns
-None, two, three- (two and three generally start with PP) ex. the gift to alice of the book by bill.
80
Constituency grammar with enriched categories
- basic lexical categories (A Adv N P V S,
- phrasal category is a pair comprising a basic lexical category and empty sequence A:().
- Complement list etiher empty or sequence of categories
- can also be a set (for polyadic)
- 2 sets for permutable
81
Semantic rule format
Let (U,i) be a structure for an English lexicon.
| If e | NP and f | VP then v(ef|S) = true iff v(e|NP) ⊆ v(f|VP)
