Final Study Guide

Question 1

What are general characteristics of the endocrine system?

Answer 1

Uses hormones, affects target cells with receptors, slower but longer-lasting than nervous system, regulates growth, metabolism, reproduction, and homeostasis.

Question 2

What is up-regulation?

Answer 2

Target cells increase receptors in response to low hormone levels.

Question 3

What is down-regulation?

Answer 3

Target cells decrease receptors in response to high hormone levels.

Question 4

How do water-soluble hormones act?

Answer 4

Travel freely in blood, bind to membrane receptors, use second messengers.

Question 5

How do lipid-soluble hormones act?

Answer 5

Require carrier proteins, bind to intracellular receptors, directly alter gene expression.

Question 6

What are the components of blood?

Answer 6

Plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets.

Question 7

What is the function of erythrocytes?

Answer 7

Carry oxygen using hemoglobin.

Question 8

What do neutrophils do?

Answer 8

Phagocytize bacteria; most abundant WBC.

Question 9

What is hemopoiesis?

Answer 9

Formation of blood cells in red bone marrow.

Question 10

What blood type is the universal donor?

Answer 10

Type O.

Question 11

What blood type is the universal recipient?

Answer 11

Type AB.

Question 12

What does Rh+ mean?

Answer 12

Has Rh antigen on RBCs.

Question 13

What happens if an Rh– person receives Rh+ blood?

Answer 13

May develop anti-Rh antibodies (especially after first exposure).

Question 14

What are the chambers of the heart?

Answer 14

Right/left atria, right/left ventricles.

Question 15

What is the order of blood flow through the heart?

Answer 15

Body → RA → RV → Lungs → LA → LV → Body.

Question 16

What are chronotropic agents?

Answer 16

Affect heart rate (positive = increase, negative = decrease).

Question 17

What are inotropic agents?

Answer 17

Affect contractility (positive = stronger, negative = weaker).

Question 18

How do arteries differ from veins?

Answer 18

Arteries are thick-walled, high-pressure, carry blood away from the heart; veins are thin-walled, have valves, carry blood to the heart.

Question 19

What is the function of lymph nodes?

Answer 19

Filter lymph and house lymphocytes/macrophages.

Question 20

What is the primary immune response?

Answer 20

First exposure to antigen; slower and weaker.

Question 21

What is the secondary immune response?

Answer 21

Faster and stronger due to memory cells.

Question 22

What is active immunity?

Answer 22

Body makes its own antibodies (infection or vaccination).

Question 23

What is passive immunity?

Answer 23

Antibodies are received (e.g., placenta, breast milk); temporary.

Question 24

What muscle is responsible for breathing?

Answer 24

Diaphragm.

Question 25

How does inspiration occur?

Answer 25

Diaphragm contracts, thoracic volume increases, pressure decreases, air flows in.

Question 26

How does expiration occur?

Answer 26

Diaphragm relaxes, volume decreases, pressure increases, air flows out.

Question 27

What is partial pressure?

Answer 27

The pressure of one gas in a mixture; gases move from high to low partial pressure.

Question 28

How is oxygen transported in blood?

Answer 28

98% bound to hemoglobin; 2% dissolved.

Question 29

How is carbon dioxide transported?

Answer 29

70% as bicarbonate, 23% bound to hemoglobin, 7% dissolved.

Question 30

What are the parts of the nephron?

Answer 30

Glomerulus, PCT, loop of Henle, DCT, collecting duct.

Question 31

What are the 3 stages of urine formation?

Answer 31

Filtration, reabsorption, secretion.

Question 32

Where does filtration occur?

Answer 32

Glomerulus.

Question 33

What is reabsorbed in the PCT?

Answer 33

Nutrients, water, ions.

Question 34

What is normal urine volume and pH?

Answer 34

1–2 L/day; pH ~6.

Question 35

What substances should not be in urine?

Answer 35

Glucose, proteins, ketones, blood, WBCs.

Question 36

What is normal blood pH?

Answer 36

7.35–7.45.

Question 37

What is acidosis?

Answer 37

Blood pH < 7.35.

Question 38

What is alkalosis?

Answer 38

Blood pH > 7.45.

Question 39

What causes respiratory acidosis?

Answer 39

Hypoventilation → increased CO2.

Question 40

What causes metabolic acidosis?

Answer 40

Kidney failure or excess acid production.

Question 41

What enzymes digest carbohydrates?

Answer 41

Salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase.

Question 42

What enzyme digests proteins?

Answer 42

Pepsin (stomach), trypsin (pancreas).

Question 43

What enzyme digests fats?

Answer 43

Pancreatic lipase.

Question 44

What does bile do?

Answer 44

Emulsifies fats (not an enzyme).

Question 45

What are the final digestion products of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids?

Answer 45

Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids/monoglycerides.

Question 46

What structures increase absorption in the small intestine?

Answer 46

Circular folds, villi, microvilli.

Question 47

Where is GnRH secreted from and what does it do?

Answer 47

Hypothalamus; stimulates release of FSH and LH.

Question 48

What does FSH do?

Answer 48

Stimulates follicle growth (females) or spermatogenesis (males).

Question 49

What does LH do?

Answer 49

Triggers ovulation (females) or testosterone production (males).

Question 50

What does estrogen do?

Answer 50

Builds uterine lining; promotes female characteristics.

Question 51

What does progesterone do?

Answer 51

Maintains uterine lining.

Question 52

What does testosterone do?

Answer 52

Promotes male traits and sperm production.

Question 53

What does hCG do?

Answer 53

Maintains corpus luteum in early pregnancy.

Question 54

What does prolactin do?

Answer 54

Stimulates milk production.

Question 55

What does oxytocin do?

Answer 55

Stimulates uterine contractions and milk letdown.

Question 56

What does inhibin do?

Answer 56

Inhibits FSH to regulate gamete production.

Question 57

What is spermatogenesis?

Answer 57

Formation of 4 sperm from one spermatogonium; continuous after puberty.

Question 58

What is oogenesis?

Answer 58

Formation of one ovum and polar bodies; starts before birth, completes after fertilization.