FINAL WXAM Flashcards
(141 cards)
1
Q
A
2
Q
What are the 5 steps to the scientific method?
A
Observation, Question, Hypothesis, Experiment, Conclusion
3
Q
What factors influence the strength of the conclusions of scientific studies and their relevance to humans?
A
Sample size, control groups, reproducibility, statistical significance, applicability to human biology
4
Q
What are the characteristics of living things?
A
Made of cells, use energy, grow and develop, reproduce, respond to environment
5
Q
What is the basic structural unit of life?
A
The cell
6
Q
What structural features are shared by all cells?
A
Cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, DNA
7
Q
What are the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
A
Prokaryotic: no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles; Eukaryotic: has nucleus and organelles
8
Q
How do solutes and water cross membranes?
A
Through diffusion, osmosis, and active transport
9
Q
What determines the direction of movement of solutes and water?
A
Concentration gradients (high to low concentration)
10
Q
Fill in the blank: Passive diffusion requires _______ and moves with the gradient.
A
no energy
11
Q
What are the macronutrients?
A
Proteins, carbs, fats
12
Q
What are micronutrients?
A
Vitamins and minerals
13
Q
What are essential nutrients?
A
Nutrients the body cannot make; must be obtained through diet
14
Q
What are enzymes?
A
Proteins that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy
15
Q
What is the difference between macronutrients and macromolecules?
A
Macronutrients are food nutrients; macromolecules are large biological molecules
16
Q
What are the different types of energy?
A
Kinetic, potential, thermal, chemical
17
Q
How do plants convert sunlight into energy-rich organic molecules?
A
Through photosynthesis
18
Q
Why can’t humans perform photosynthesis?
A
Humans lack chloroplasts
19
Q
How does aerobic respiration extract energy from food?
A
Converts glucose to ATP using oxygen in mitochondria
20
Q
What factors influence weight gain and weight loss?
A
Caloric intake, physical activity, metabolism, genetics, NEAT
21
Q
What is the structure of DNA?
A
Double helix of nucleotides; coiled into chromosomes in nucleus
22
Q
Why is each person’s DNA unique?
A
Variations in sequences, including STRs and mutations
23
Q
What is the function of DNA?
A
Stores genetic information for protein synthesis
24
Q
What determines the shape of a protein molecule?
A
Amino acid sequence and bonding
25
What are the steps of gene expression?
Transcription (nucleus), Translation (cytoplasm/ribosome)
26
What are mutations?
Changes in DNA caused by errors in replication, radiation, chemicals
27
Are all mutations harmful?
No, some are neutral or beneficial
28
How and why do cells divide?
For growth, repair, reproduction via mitosis or meiosis
29
How does one specialized cell type differ from another?
Gene expression determines cell function and type
30
What are the stages of mitosis?
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
31
How does meiosis produce genetically diverse gametes?
Through crossing over and independent assortment
32
How do chromosomes determine sex?
XX = female, XY = male
33
What inheritance patterns are observed when alleles are not simply dominant or recessive?
Incomplete dominance, codominance, polygenic traits
34
How are the bodies of living organisms organized?
Cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism
35
What are the two feedback loops involved in homeostasis?
Negative feedback, Positive feedback
36
What is the difference between the endocrine system’s communication and nervous system’s communication?
Endocrine: slow, chemical signals; Nervous: fast, electrical signals
37
Define hypothesis.
A testable explanation or prediction for an observation
38
What is a control group?
The group that does not receive the treatment; used for comparison
39
What is a placebo?
A fake treatment given to the control group
40
What is the cell theory?
All living things are made of cells, and all cells come from other cells
41
What are prokaryotic cells?
Cells without a nucleus or membrane-bound organelles
42
What is cohesion?
Attraction between molecules of the same substance
43
What is adhesion?
Attraction between molecules of different substances
44
What is an ionic bond?
Bonds formed when electrons are transferred between atoms
45
What does pH measure?
Acidity/basicity (0–14); 7 is neutral
46
What is an antibiotic?
A substance that kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria
47
What is activation energy?
The minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction
48
What is a catabolic reaction?
A reaction that breaks down molecules and releases energy
49
What is an anabolic reaction?
A reaction that builds larger molecules from smaller ones; requires energy
50
What is photosynthesis?
The process by which plants convert sunlight, water, and CO₂ into glucose and oxygen
51
What is carbon fixation?
The process of converting CO₂ into organic molecules during photosynthesis
52
What is Body Mass Index (BMI)?
A measure of body fat based on height and weight
53
What is a calorie?
A unit of energy used to quantify the amount of energy food provides
54
What is Non-Exercise Activity Thermogenesis (NEAT)?
Energy burned during daily activities (not exercise)
55
What is ATP?
The main energy-carrying molecule in cells
56
What is aerobic respiration?
The process of generating ATP using oxygen
57
What is fermentation?
An anaerobic process that produces energy and byproducts like alcohol or lactic acid
58
What is a genome?
All the genetic material of an organism
59
What is semi-conservative DNA replication?
Each new DNA molecule contains one old and one new strand
60
What is a coding sequence?
Part of DNA that provides instructions for making a protein
61
What is a non-coding sequence?
Part of DNA that does not code for proteins, but may regulate genes
62
What is a gene?
A segment of DNA that codes for a protein
63
What is gene expression?
The process by which a gene is turned into a protein
64
What is transcription?
The process of making RNA from DNA
65
What is translation?
The process of making a protein from RNA
66
What is a point mutation?
A change in one nucleotide base in DNA
67
What is a frameshift mutation?
A mutation caused by insertion or deletion that shifts the reading frame
68
What are germ-line cells?
Reproductive cells (sperm/egg) that pass on DNA
69
What are somatic cells?
Body cells that do not pass DNA to offspring
70
What is the cell cycle?
The sequence of events in a cell’s life, including growth and division
71
What is interphase?
The phase where the cell grows, replicates DNA, and prepares for mitosis
72
What is cytokinesis?
Division of the cytoplasm following mitosis
73
What are homologous chromosomes?
Chromosome pairs with genes for the same traits
74
What are sister chromatids?
Identical copies of a chromosome joined at the centromere
75
What is apoptosis?
Programmed cell death
76
What is cancer?
Uncontrolled cell division
77
What is a benign tumor?
A non-cancerous growth
78
What is aneuploidy?
An abnormal number of chromosomes
79
What is the Law of Segregation?
Each parent passes only one allele for each gene to offspring
80
What is the Law of Independent Assortment?
Genes for different traits are inherited independently
81
What is recombination?
Exchange of genetic material during meiosis, increasing diversity
82
What is a phenotype?
The physical expression of a trait
83
What is a karyotype?
A picture of all chromosomes in a cell
84
What is epigenetics?
Changes in gene expression without altering DNA sequence
85
What is the study of body structure called?
Anatomy
## Footnote
Anatomy examines the physical makeup of organisms.
86
What is the study of body function called?
Physiology
## Footnote
Physiology focuses on how organs and systems operate.
87
What system of glands secrete hormones?
Endocrine System
## Footnote
The endocrine system regulates various body functions through hormones.
88
What is the fast communication system using nerves and neurotransmitters?
Nervous System
## Footnote
The nervous system enables rapid responses to stimuli.
89
Define Positive Feedback Loop.
A process that amplifies a change
## Footnote
Example: childbirth contractions.
90
Define Negative Feedback Loop.
A process that counteracts a change to maintain stability
## Footnote
Example: regulation of blood sugar levels.
91
What is thermoregulation?
Maintaining internal body temperature
## Footnote
Essential for homeostasis.
92
What is osmoregulation?
Controlling water and salt balance in the body
## Footnote
Crucial for cellular function.
93
What does osmolarity refer to?
The concentration of solute particles in a solution
## Footnote
Important for understanding fluid balance.
94
List the steps of the scientific method.
* Observation
* Hypothesis
* Experimentation
* Analysis
* Conclusion
## Footnote
A systematic approach to discovering knowledge.
95
What is the difference between Control Group and Experimental Group?
* Control Group: does not receive treatment
* Experimental Group: receives treatment
## Footnote
These groups are essential for comparison in experiments.
96
True or False: Correlation proves causation.
False
## Footnote
Correlation indicates a relationship, but does not imply one variable causes the other.
97
What is Atomic Number?
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
## Footnote
Defines the element.
98
What is Atomic Mass?
The total mass of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
## Footnote
Indicates the weight of an atom.
99
What is the difference between Organic and Inorganic compounds?
* Organic: contain carbon-hydrogen bonds
* Inorganic: generally do not contain carbon-hydrogen bonds
## Footnote
These classifications are fundamental in chemistry.
100
What are Monomers?
Small, repeating building blocks that make up polymers
## Footnote
Essential for forming macromolecules.
101
What are Polymers?
Large molecules formed by the joining of many monomers
## Footnote
Key components of biological structures.
102
Define Ionic Bonds.
Bonds formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms
## Footnote
Results in charged ions.
103
Define Hydrogen Bonds.
Weak bonds between hydrogen atoms and electronegative atoms
## Footnote
Important in biological molecules like DNA.
104
What are Eukaryotic cells?
Cells with a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles
## Footnote
Include plant and animal cells.
105
What are Prokaryotic cells?
Cells that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
## Footnote
Include bacteria and archaea.
106
What is Active Transport?
Requires energy to move substances against their concentration gradient
## Footnote
Essential for nutrient uptake.
107
What is Passive Transport?
Does not require energy; substances move down their concentration gradient
## Footnote
Example: diffusion.
108
Define Osmosis.
The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from high to low water concentration
## Footnote
Crucial for cellular hydration.
109
What is Tonicity?
The ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
## Footnote
Types: isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic.
110
What are Macromolecules?
Large biological molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids)
## Footnote
Fundamental for life.
111
What are Macronutrients?
Nutrients needed in large amounts by organisms (carbohydrates, proteins, fats)
## Footnote
Essential for energy and growth.
112
What are Catabolic Reactions?
Break down complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy
## Footnote
Example: digestion.
113
What are Anabolic Reactions?
Build complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy
## Footnote
Example: protein synthesis.
114
What is Photosynthesis?
The process by which plants convert light energy into chemical energy (glucose)
## Footnote
Vital for plant life and oxygen production.
115
What is Cellular Respiration?
The process by which cells break down glucose to release energy (ATP)
## Footnote
Essential for all living organisms.
116
What is DNA Replication?
The natural process by which cells duplicate their DNA
## Footnote
Important for cell division.
117
What is Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)?
A laboratory technique for amplifying specific DNA segments
## Footnote
Widely used in genetic research.
118
What is a Genome?
The complete set of genetic material in an organism
## Footnote
Includes all genes and non-coding sequences.
119
What is a Gene?
A unit of heredity; a DNA sequence encoding a protein
## Footnote
Fundamental unit of genetic information.
120
What is Semi-Conservative DNA Replication?
Each new DNA molecule has one original and one new strand
## Footnote
Ensures fidelity in DNA duplication.
121
What is a Coding Sequence?
Part of a gene that specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein
## Footnote
Determines the function of the protein.
122
What is a Non-Coding Sequence?
DNA that does not code for protein but has regulatory functions
## Footnote
Plays roles in gene expression.
123
Define Interphase.
The cell growth and preparation phase before cell division
## Footnote
Includes G1, S, and G2 phases.
124
Define Mitosis.
Nuclear division, separating sister chromatids
## Footnote
Results in two identical daughter cells.
125
Define Cytokinesis.
Division of the cytoplasm, resulting in two separate cells
## Footnote
Completes the cell division process.
126
What is the difference between Mitosis and Meiosis?
* Mitosis: produces two identical diploid cells
* Meiosis: produces four genetically different haploid cells
## Footnote
Mitosis is for growth; meiosis is for reproduction.
127
What are Germline Cells?
Cells that give rise to gametes (sperm and egg)
## Footnote
Essential for sexual reproduction.
128
What are Somatic Cells?
All body cells except germline cells
## Footnote
Make up tissues and organs.
129
Define Homologous Chromosomes.
Pair of chromosomes with the same genes
## Footnote
One from each parent.
130
Define Sister Chromatids.
Two identical copies of a chromosome, joined at the centromere
## Footnote
Formed during DNA replication.
131
What is a Benign tumor?
Non-cancerous tumor that does not spread
## Footnote
Generally considered less harmful.
132
What is a Malignant tumor?
Cancerous tumor that can invade other tissues (metastasize)
## Footnote
Associated with cancer.
133
Define Phenotype.
Observable characteristics of an organism
## Footnote
Influenced by genotype and environment.
134
Define Genotype.
Genetic makeup of an organism
## Footnote
Determines potential traits.
135
What is Haploid?
Having one set of chromosomes (n)
## Footnote
Found in gametes.
136
What is Diploid?
Having two sets of chromosomes (2n)
## Footnote
Found in somatic cells.
137
What is the Law of Independent Assortment?
Alleles of different genes sort independently during meiosis
## Footnote
Contributes to genetic diversity.
138
What is Recombination?
Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes (crossing over)
## Footnote
Increases genetic variation.
139
What is the difference between Anatomy and Physiology?
* Anatomy: study of structure
* Physiology: study of function
## Footnote
Both are essential branches of biology.
140
What are Negative Feedback Loops?
Maintain homeostasis by counteracting changes
## Footnote
Example: body temperature regulation.
141
What are Positive Feedback Loops?
Amplify a change, driving a system further away from its initial state
## Footnote
Example: blood clotting.
