Finals

Question 1

Describe the function of respiration in the cardio-respiratory system.

Answer 1

The function of respiration is gas exchange, which involves replenishing oxygen and removing metabolic byproducts like carbon dioxide.

Question 2

Explain the role of circulation in the cardio-respiratory system.

Answer 2

Circulation is responsible for moving molecules to different parts of the body between various systems, utilizing the heart, veins, arteries, capillaries, and blood.

Question 3

How have respiration and circulation evolved together in vertebrates?

Answer 3

Both systems have evolved to replenish oxygen and remove metabolic byproducts, featuring a pump mechanism that connects the internal world to the external environment.

Question 4

Define the role of pharyngeal arches in early vertebrates without respiratory structures.

Answer 4

In early vertebrates, pharyngeal arches helped bring oxygen to tissues by facilitating water flow and aiding in respiration through diffusion across the skin.

Question 5

Describe the basic anatomy of gills in vertebrates.

Answer 5

Basic gill anatomy includes bony arches that support gill filaments, which are highly vascularized epithelial cells with lamellae filled with capillaries to facilitate gas exchange.

Question 6

Explain the differences in gill anatomy between agnathans and chondrichthyans.

Answer 6

Agnathans have bi-directional water flow over gills with lamellae distal to gill filaments, while chondrichthyans have unidirectional flow with cartilaginous supports medial to lamellae and may possess gill rakers.

Question 7

What is the function of the spiracle in chondrichthyans?

Answer 7

The spiracle is a hole behind the eyes that helps bring water past the gills more efficiently.

Question 8

How do osteichthyes differ from chondrichthyans in terms of gill anatomy?

Answer 8

Osteichthyes have a unidirectional pump with lamellae medial to bony supports and develop an operculum for gill protection, as well as gas organs like primitive lungs and swim bladders.

Question 9

Describe the properties of gill anatomy that facilitate diffusion in fish.

Answer 9

Gill anatomy facilitates diffusion through countercurrent exchange, where water flows in the opposite direction to blood flow, maximizing oxygen uptake.

Question 10

Explain the evolution of lungs and swim bladders in tetrapods.

Answer 10

Tetrapods developed lungs as soft tissue structures that enhance oxygen transfer to the bloodstream, with ventilation mechanisms bringing air to the lungs.

Question 11

How do amphibians differ from reptiles in lung structure?

Answer 11

Amphibians have internal folds and septa in their lungs but lack alveoli, while reptiles possess faveoli, which are honeycomb-like structures that increase surface area for gas exchange.

Question 12

Describe the buccal pump mechanism in early tetrapods.

Answer 12

The buccal pump, also known as the aspiration pump, involves air entering the buccal cavity, migrating to the lungs, and then being pushed back out through the buccal cavity during lung contraction.

Question 13

What breathing mechanism do reptiles use, and how is it linked to locomotion?

Answer 13

Reptiles use negative pressure breathing, utilizing intercostal muscles, and this breathing is linked to their locomotion.

Question 14

Describe the process of respiration in birds.

Answer 14

Birds have a unique two-breath process: during the first inhalation, air is taken into the posterior air sacs; during the first exhalation, that air moves to the lungs. The second inhalation moves the air to the anterior air sacs, and upon the second exhalation, deoxygenated air is expelled from the body.

Question 15

Explain the role of external intercostal muscles in human respiration.

Answer 15

External intercostal muscles cause the ribs to rise and rotate outwards, facilitating inhalation.

Question 16

Define the components of the circulatory system.

Answer 16

The circulatory system consists of hematopoietic cells, circulatory fluids (plasma, blood including red and white blood cells, and platelets), veins, arteries, capillaries, and the heart.

Question 17

How does hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen change in different tissues?

Answer 17

Hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen is influenced by pH, pressure, and temperature. Higher acidity lowers hemoglobin’s affinity for oxygen, allowing oxygen to flow from the blood into tissues where it is needed.

Question 18

Describe the function of neutrophils in the circulatory system.

Answer 18

Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell that engulf bacterial cells, playing a crucial role in the immune response.

Question 19

Explain the structure and function of arteries.

Answer 19

Arteries operate under high pressure and have a thicker tunica media, which provides greater elasticity to withstand the pressure of blood being pumped from the heart.

Question 20

What is the role of platelets in the circulatory system?

Answer 20

Platelets activate the coagulation response and adhere to damaged blood vessels to help plug them and prevent bleeding.

Question 21

Describe the tissue layers found in veins, arteries, and capillaries.

Answer 21

All three types of blood vessels share three tissue layers: tunica intima (thin epithelial tissue), tunica media (smooth muscles with collagen and elastin), and tunica externa (collagen and elastin for support), but in different ratios.

Question 22

How do veins differ from arteries in terms of blood pressure and structure?

Answer 22

Veins operate under lower pressure than arteries and have valves to control blood flow, while arteries operate under high pressure and have a thicker tunica media.

Question 23

Explain the significance of capillaries in the circulatory system.

Answer 23

Capillaries operate under a gradient of pressure and are crucial for delivering molecules such as oxygen and nutrients to tissues.

Question 24

Describe the changes in blood pressure associated with the heart’s activity.

Answer 24

Blood pressure changes in arteries during systolic (when the heart is contracting) and diastolic (when the heart is at rest) phases.

Question 25

Describe the function of the arteries during systole and diastole.

Answer 25

During systole, the tunica media walls stretch to pump blood out, while during diastole, the elastic energy stored in the walls helps push the blood forward.

Question 26

Explain the role of valves in veins.

Answer 26

Valves in veins have pockets that collect blood; when pressure builds up, they passively close, and higher upstream pressure forces them open, aiding in blood movement.

Question 27

Define Bernoulli’s principle in the context of capillaries.

Answer 27

Bernoulli’s principle states that as the speed of fluid increases, the pressure decreases, which is relevant in the functioning of capillaries.

Question 28

How did the heart evolve from fish to mammals?

Answer 28

Fish have a one-way system with body and gill capillaries; reptiles developed a three-chambered heart, and mammals evolved a four-chambered heart with complete septa separating the ventricles.

Question 29

Explain the evolution of the cardiorespiratory system in protochordates.

Answer 29

In protochordates, the heart receives all blood, both oxygenated from the skin and deoxygenated from the body.

Question 30

Describe the heart function in agnathans and gnathasomes.

Answer 30

Agnathans and gnathasomes have a heart that receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it across the gills for oxygenation.

Question 31

How do fishes with lungs differ in heart function compared to other fish?

Answer 31

Fishes with lungs receive oxygen-poor blood from organs and oxygen-rich blood from primitive lungs, then pump it across the gills.

Question 32

Define the role of aortic arches in vertebrates.

Answer 32

Aortic arches receive blood from the heart, move it through capillaries in gills, and return it to the body, modifying over time as vertebrates adapt to life on land.

Question 33

Explain the changes in aortic arches from fishes to mammals.

Answer 33

Fishes lose the first pharyngeal openings and associated arches, while mammals develop septa that separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

Question 34

Describe the evolution of gas-filled structures in fishes.

Answer 34

Gas-filled structures evolved multiple times in fishes, leading to the development of surfactant to reduce surface tension and support lung tissue.

Question 35

How do amphibians transition from larvae to adults in terms of respiratory structures?

Answer 35

Larval amphibians have gills, but adults develop lungs; some arches are lost, and others become carotid and pulmonary arteries, leading to a three-chambered heart.

Question 36

Explain the significance of the three-chambered heart in reptiles.

Answer 36

Reptiles exhibit a three-chambered heart, showing the beginning of asymmetry in heart structure as they adapt to their environment.

Question 37

Describe the function of the ventral aorta in mammals.

Answer 37

The ventral aorta splits to become the left and right aortic arches and the pulmonary trunk, where the trunk carries blood to the lungs and the arches supply blood to the body and head.

Question 38

Explain the development of the ventricle in mammals.

Answer 38

The ventricle develops a septa that partially separates the blood flow, and in mammals, the septa fully separates the ventricles.

Question 39

Define the role of the middle aortic arch in mammals.

Answer 39

The middle aortic arch becomes the subclavian arteries, which supply blood to the upper body.

Question 40

How do heat exchange structures function in mammals and other animals?

Answer 40

Heat exchange structures facilitate heat dissipation at the skin, utilizing mechanisms like heat blocks and counter-current exchanges.

Question 41

Describe the organization of the nervous system in chordates.

Answer 41

The nervous system in chordates is organized with a dorsal hollow nerve tube, a pituitary gland, a notochord, and pharyngeal slits.

Question 42

Explain the structure of neurons and their function.

Answer 42

Neurons consist of a soma (head) surrounded by branching dendrites, an axon with a myelin sheath, and axon terminals. They communicate by propagating electrical signals and neurotransmitters across synapses.

Question 43

What is the role of the synapse in neuronal communication?

Answer 43

The synapse is the location between neurons where signals are received, allowing neurotransmitters to bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.

Question 44

Define the central nervous system (CNS) and its components.

Answer 44

The CNS originates from the dorsal hollow nerve tube in chordates and consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Question 45

Describe the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and its structure.

Answer 45

The PNS is made up of nerve bundles with connective tissue, consisting of afferent and efferent axons, and includes about 12 cranial nerves and 31 spinal nerves.

Question 46

Differentiate between somatic and visceral nerves.

Answer 46

Somatic nerves carry sensory or motor information to or from somatic tissues, while visceral nerves carry information from the gut, glands, and cardiac tissues, and are autonomically controlled.

Question 47

Explain the difference between afferent and efferent nerves.

Answer 47

Afferent nerves bring information to the CNS, while efferent nerves carry information away from the CNS.

Question 48

Describe the components of the autonomic nervous system.

Answer 48

The autonomic nervous system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic components that regulate involuntary bodily functions.

Question 49

What parts of the brain are shared across vertebrates?

Answer 49

Parts of the brain shared across vertebrates include the prosencephalon, mesencephalon, and rhombencephalon, each with specific functions.

Question 50

Explain the functions of the prosencephalon in the brain.

Answer 50

The prosencephalon includes the pituitary/hypothalamus, olfactory bulb, and cerebrum, which are involved in hormone regulation, sensory processing, decision making, and memory.

Question 51

Describe the role of the mesencephalon in the brain.

Answer 51

The mesencephalon contains the optic tectum and midbrain nuclei, which control muscle movements and process sensory information, particularly related to vision.

Question 52

What are the functions of the cerebellum and medulla oblongata in the rhombencephalon?

Answer 52

The cerebellum is responsible for balance and fine motor movements, while the medulla oblongata controls autonomic functions such as heart rate and breathing.

Question 53

Describe the role of the brain in processing motor information.

Answer 53

The brain monitors motor information but does not generate it.

Question 54

Explain the relationship between brain size and behavioral complexity.

Answer 54

Brain size is proportional to behavioral complexity, with changes in organisms based on regional specializations.

Question 55

How does the cerebellum size differ in fishes compared to terrestrial organisms?

Answer 55

In fishes, the cerebellum increases in size associated with active swimming and balance, while in terrestrial organisms, the cerebrum is larger and associated with locomotion and coordinating movement complexity.

Question 56

Define the sciatic nerve and its significance in humans.

Answer 56

The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve in humans.

Question 57

Do the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and central nervous system (CNS) always interact?

Answer 57

No, the PNS doesn’t always need to interact with the CNS; for example, reflex actions can occur without CNS involvement.

Question 58

Explain the process of knee-jerk reactions and reflexes.

Answer 58

Knee-jerk reactions and reflexes involve motor efferent signals carrying information to retract a limb and extend the opposite limb.

Question 59

Describe how the brain integrates information.

Answer 59

The brain integrates streams of information through communication of multiple neurons via synapses, with feedback loops that engrain responses, and neuroplasticity allowing for changes.

Question 60

Define neurotransmitters and their function in the nervous system.

Answer 60

Neurotransmitters are chemicals released by neurons that bind to receptor cells, activating or inhibiting them, and may open ion channels or cause signaling cascades.

Question 61

How have cranial nerves evolved over time?

Answer 61

Some cranial nerves have been conserved across evolutionary time (like 1-10, and 11 and 12), while others have changed in function, such as V and VII, which evolved from innervating branchial arches to controlling jaw and facial muscles.

Question 62

Explain the role of spinal nerves in the nervous system.

Answer 62

Spinal nerves bring information to the brain, receive information from afferent nerves, and can process limited information themselves, carrying both somatic and autonomic signals.

Question 63

Differentiate between somatic and autonomic signals in the nervous system.

Answer 63

Somatic signals involve conscious perception and movement, while autonomic signals involve unconscious perception and movement.

Question 64

Describe the functions of the autonomic nervous system.

Answer 64

The autonomic nervous system controls digestion, respiration, heart rate, and functions of sex organs, kidneys, and bladder, and includes both sensory and motor components.

Question 65

What are the roles of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

Answer 65

The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for strenuous activity, while the parasympathetic nervous system calms the system down after activation.

Question 66

Explain how the parasympathetic nervous system is controlled.

Answer 66

The parasympathetic nervous system is largely controlled by craniosacral nerves.

Question 67

How is the sympathetic nervous system primarily controlled?

Answer 67

The sympathetic nervous system is largely controlled by spinal nerves.