Finals: Exam 2 Review Flashcards
(154 cards)
1
Q
Muscle fibers are similar to other cells except are
A
a. Multinucleate and striated
2
Q
Includes the single synaptic ending of the motor neuron innervating each muscle fiber and underlying specialization of sarcolemma
A
a. Neuromuscular junction NMJ
3
Q
Place on sarcolemma where NMJ occurs
A
a. Motor end plate
4
Q
Includes each motor neuron and all fibers it innervates
A
a. Motor unit
5
Q
T or f When a motor neuron is activated, all muscle fibers in its motor unit contract
A
a. True
6
Q
Fine movement occur when
A
a. Motor units are small
7
Q
Gross movement occur when motor units are
A
a. Large
8
Q
Since individual motor units fire “ all or none” how do skeletal muscles perform smooth movements
A
a. Recruitment
9
Q
_____ are composed of thick and thin filaments that give rise to bands which underlie striations
A
a. Myofilaments
10
Q
Muscle contracts because myofibrils get shorter and it Occurs because thin filaments slide over and between thick filaments
A
a. Sliding filament theory of contraction
11
Q
After binding myosin undergoes conformational change ____ (thin slide over thick filament) which exerts force on actin
A
a. Power stroke
12
Q
Cross bridges are formed by
A
a. Heads of myosin
13
Q
Control of cross bridge attachment to actin is via _______ which serves as a switch for muscle contraction and relaxation
A
a. Troponin-tropomyosin system
14
Q
Ca2+ levels decrease because it is continuously pumped back into _______ (a calcium reservoir in muscle)
A
a. Sarcoplasmic reticulum
15
Q
Release of Ach at NMJ causes
A
a. Large depolarizing end-plate potentials and Aps in muscle
16
Q
Ca++ channels in SR are mechanically channels on T tubules an dAPs in T tubules cause release of Ca++ from cisternae via V-gated Ca++ release channels called
A
a. Electromechanical release
17
Q
Single rapid contraction and relaxation of muscle fibers
A
a. Twitch
18
Q
If 2nd stimulus occurs before muscle relaxes from 1st, the 2nd twitch will be greater
A
a. Summation
19
Q
If muscle is stimulated by an increasing frequency of electrical shocks, its tension will increase to a maximum
A
a. Incomplete tetanus
20
Q
If frequency is so fast no relaxation occurs, a smooth sustained contraction result
A
a. Complete tetanus
21
Q
If muscle is repeatedly stimulated with maximum voltage to produce individual twitches , successive twitches get larger
A
a. Treppe or staircase effect
22
Q
Largest part of brain (80 % mass) and is responsible for higher mental functions
A
a. Cerebrum
23
Q
Each hemisphere of cerebrum has 5 lobes
A
a. Frontal
b. parietal
c. temporal
d. occipital
e. insula
24
Q
Outermost portion of cerebrum with numerous folds and grooves = convolutions
A
a. Cerebral cortex
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An elevated fold is called
a. Gyrus
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Frontal lobe is separated from parietal lobe by a deep fissure called
a. Central sulcus
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_____ of frontal lobe is involved in motor control
a. Precentral gyrus
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_____ of parietal lobe receives sensory info from areas controlled by precentral gyrus
a. Postcentral gyrus
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Contains auditory centers; receives sensory info from cochlea and also links and processes auditory and visual info
a. Temporal lobe
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Responsible for vision and coordination of eye movement
a. Occipital lobe
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Plays role in memory encoding; integrates sensory info with visceral responses; coordinates cardiovascular response to stress
a. Insula
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involves complex computer manipulation obtained from x-ray absorption of tissues of different densities; visualizes soft tissues at different depths
a. x-ray computed tomography CT
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uses radioisotopes that emit positrons injected into the blood stream; positrons collide with electrons causing the emission of gamma rays that can be detected and indicate the most active areas of the brain; is used to examine brain metabolism & blood flow, drug distribution (allows to see blood flow in brain)
a. Positron-emission tomography PET
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protons (H+) can be controlled by magnetic fields and emit detectable radio-wave signals when stimulated; shows brain function
a. Magnetic resonance imaging MRI
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Measures electrical activity of cerebral cortex; used to diagnose epilepsy & brain death (least dangerous)
a. Electroencephalogram EEG)
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Ability to remember facts and events
a. Declarative memory
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Perceptual and motor skills
a. Nondeclarative memory
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The consolidation of S-T into L-T memory is the function of the _______ = hippocampus, amygdaloid nucleus, and adjacent areas of cerebral cortex
a. Medial temporal lobe (MTL)
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Is critical for acquiring new memories and consolidating short-into long-term memory
a. Hippocampus
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Crucial for fear memories
a. Amygdala
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Removal of the left MTL impairs the consolidation of
a. Short term verbal memories
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Increased sustained excitability of a synapse after initial high frequency stimulation
a. Long term potential LTP
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Hippocampus contains neural stem cells that may produce new neurons
a. Neurogenesis
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Stress or depression impede learning and cause
a. Hippocampus to shrink
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Contains several nuclei of cranial nerves and 2 important respiratory control centers = apneustic and pneumotaxic
a. Pons
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2nd larges structure in brain; receives input from proprioceptors; involved in coordinating movements and motor learning
a. Cerebellum
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Contains all tract that pass between brain and spinal cord, many nuclei of cranial nerves, and several curual centers for breathing and cardiovascular system
a. Medulla
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Complex network of nuclei and fibers spanning medulla, pons, midbrain, and thalamus, and hypothalamus; functions as reticular activating system
a. Reticular formation
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Sets level of arousal of cerebral cortex to incoming sensory information
a. Reticular formation
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Manages our physiology by regulating cardiac and smooth muscles and glands that are not under voluntary control
a. Autonomic nervous system
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Neurons that conduct impulses away from CNS
a. Motor efferent
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Have cell bodies in CNS and send axons to skeletal muscle for voluntary control (sensory neuron CNS motor output neurons effector organ)
a. Somatic pathway
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(sensory neuron --> CNS --> preganglionic neuron --> postganglionic neuron --> effector organ)
a. Autonomic pathway
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Without innervation skeletal muscle is
a. Paralyzed
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Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle maintain resting tone in absence of nerve stimulation; becomes move sensitive when ANS input is cut
a. Denervation hypersensitivity
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Originate in the spinal cord between thoracic and lumbar levels
a. Preganglionic fibers of sympathetic division
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Mediates “fight, flight, and stress” reactions mostly trough the release of norepinephrine from postganglionic fibers and epinephrine from the adrenal medulla
a. Sympathetic division
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Originate in the brain and in the sacral levels of the spinal cord
a. Preganglionic fibers of parasympathetic division
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Mediates “rest and digest” reactions through the release of Ach from postganglionic fibers
a. Parasympathetic division
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Sympathetic division of the ANS is also called _____ because its preganglionic neurons exit spinal cord from t1 to L2
a. Thoracolumbar division
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Most sympathetic fibers separate from somatic motor neurons and synapse on postganglionic neurons within a double row of ganglia called
a. Paravertebral ganglia
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Paravertebral ganglia Form chain of interconnected ganglia paralleling spinal cord called the
a. Sympathetic chain of ganglia
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Myelinated preganglionic sympathetic axons exit the spinal cord in the ventral roots of spinal nerves but diverge within short pathways called
a. White rami communicantes
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Axons of postganglionic neurons are unmyelinated and from the _____ as they return to spinal nerves
a. Gray rami communicantes
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Divergence and convergence together cause the sympathetic division to mostly act as a unit
a. Mass activation
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Outer adrenal glands secrete
a. Steroid hormones
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Inner adrenal medulla secretes
a. Mostly 85% epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (15%)
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_____ appears to be a modified sympathetic ganglion because it has the same embryonic origin as the postganglionic sympathetic neurons
a. Adrenal medulla
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Parasympathetic division of the ANS is also called ______ because long preganglionic parasympathetic fibers originate in midbrain, medulla, pons and 2nd – 4th region of spinal column
a. Craniosacral division
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Preganglionic parasympathetic fibers synapse on postganglionic parasympathetic fibers in parasympathetic ganglia called _______ located next to or within target organ
a. Terminal ganglia
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Cutaneous effectors (sweat glands, blood vessels, arrector pili receive
a. Sympathetic innervation
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The _______ carries most parasympathetic fibers and synapse in terminal ganglia spread throughout the body (innervates heart, lungs, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, small intestine and and upper half of the large intestine)
a. long vagus nerve X
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parasympathetic postganglionic fibers also release Ach called
a. cholinergic synapses
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Most postganglionic sympathetic fibers release norepinephrine (noradrenaline) called
a. Adrenergic synapse
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Where postganglionic autonomic neurons enter into their target organs, they have many swellings called varicosities which release NTs along a length of axon that forms unusual synapse called
a. Synapses en passant
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Drugs that promote actions of a NT
a. Agonist
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77. Drugs that inhibit actions of a NT
a. Antagonist
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Are stimulated by nicotine and Ach and are always excitatory; located in NMJs and autonomic ganglia
a. Nicotinic receptors
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Stimulated by Ach and muscarine and can be excitatory or inhibitory
a. Muscarinic receptors
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Some postganglionic neurons Appear to use ATP, VIP and NO and do not use norepinephrine or Ach
a. Nonadrenergic noncholinergic fibers
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Cause similar effects such as with salivation
a. Complementary
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Produce different effects that work together to cause desired effect…eg reproductive system
a. Cooperative or synergistic
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Adrenal medulla, arrector pili muscle, sweat glands, and most blood vessels receive only
a. Sympathetic innervation
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Most directly controls activity of ANS by receiving afferent information via CNX (vagus)
a. Medulla oblongata
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Has centers for control of cardiovascular, pulmonary, urinary, reproductive, and digestive systems
a. Medulla oblongata
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Has centers for control of body temperature, hunger, thirst, the pituitary gland, the cerebral cortex and limbic system (emotions), and can regulate medulla oblongata
a. Hypothalamus
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Is responsible for visceral responses that reflect emotional states
a. Limbic system
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Transduce (change) environmental information into Aps
a. Sensory receptors
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Sense chemical stimuli (taste buds, olfactory receptors)
a. Chemoreceptors
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Transduce light (rods and cones)
a. Photoreceptors
91
Respond to temperature changes (heat and cold)
a. Thermoreceptors
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Respond to deformation of their cell membrane (touch, pressure, hair cells of inner ear)
a. Mechanoreceptors
93
Respond to intense stimuli by signaling pain
a. Nociceptor
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Signal positional information of body parts (join receptors, Golgi tendons, muscle spindles)
a. Proprioceptors
95
Near an epithelial surface (respond to touch, pressure, temperature or pain)
a. Cutaneous receptors
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Respond at constant rate as long as stimulus is applied eg pain
a. Tonic receptors
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Respond with burst of activity but quickly reduce firing rate to constant stimulation
a. Phasic receptors
98
Responsible for sensory adaptation (smell and touch)
a. Phasic receptors
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In phasic receptors the _______ adapts to a constant stimulus and quickly diminishes in amplitude
a. Generator potential
100
Cutaneous sensation such as touch, pressure, and heat are mediated by
a. Free and encapsulated nerve endings
101
Are slow-adapting, expanded free nerve endings that mediate touch
a. Ruffini endings and Merkel’s discs
102
Encapsulated nerve endings mediate touch, pressure and adapt quickly
a. Meisner’s and Pacinian corpuscles
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Minimum distance at which 2 points of touch can be perceived as separate
a. Two-point touch threshold
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CNS process that sharpens sensation; sensory neurons at center of stimulation area inhibit more lateral neurons and object are perceived as single touch with well-defined borders
a. Lateral inhibition
105
Smell olfaction receptors are located in ____ at top of nasal cavity
a. Olfactory epithelium
106
Receptor cells of olfactory apparatus are bipolar neurons that send axons to
a. Olfactory bulb
107
Olfactory apparatus Stem cells that produce new receptor cells every 1-2 months
a. Basal cells
108
Sweet and bitter and Odor molecules bind to receptors and act through
a. G proteins
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Provides sense of equilibrium orientation to gravity
a. Vestibular apparatus
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Otolith organs consists of
a. Utricle and saccule
111
Vestibular apparatus consists of
a. Otolith organs and semicircular canals
112
Utricle and saccule produce info about
a. Linear acceleration
113
Semicircular canals oriented in 3 planes give sense of
a. Angular (rotational) acceleration
114
Modified epithelial cells and are receptors for hearing and equilibrium
a. Hair cells
115
Hair cells contain 20-50 hair like extensions called
a. Stereocilia
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1 Longer hair cell extension
a. Kinocilium
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Utricle and saccule each have a ___ a patch of specialized epithelium containing hair and support cells
a. Macula
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Calcium carbonate crystals that resist change in movements
a. Otoliths
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At base of semicircular canals where sensory hair cells are located
a. Crista ampullaris
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Hair cell process are embedded in gelatinous membrane ____ with higher density than endolymph
a. Cupula of crista ampullaris
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Involuntary oscillations of eyes
a. Vestibular nystagmus
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Loss of equilibrium
a. Vertigo
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Malleus carries vibration to incus, which goes to stapes and to
a. Oval window
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Muscle attached to stapes and provides portion from loud noises
a. Stapedius muscle
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Where sound is transduced
a. Organ of corti
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Pressure waves moving thru cochlear duct create shearing forces between basilar and _____, moving and bending stereocilia
a. Tectorial membrane
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Occurs when transmission of sound waves to oval window is impaired; helped by hearing aids
a. Conduction deafness
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Impaired transmission of nerve impulses; helped by cochlear implants
a. Sensorineural deafness
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A multilayered epithelium consisting of neurons, pigmented epithelium and photoreceptors (rods and cones)
a. Retina
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130. Axons of retinal neurons gather at ______ (bind spot) and exit eye in optic disc
a. Optic disc
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Part of the external world projected into retina
a. Visual field
132
Sharpness’ of vision
a. Visual acuity
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Ability to distinguish (resolve) 2 closely spaced dots
a. Resolving power
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(nearsightedness) image is focused in front of retina because eyeball is too long; object will have to be closer to be seen
a. Myopia
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(farsightedness) image is focused behind retina because eyeball too short; object will have to be further away to be seen
a. Hyperopia
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Cornea or lens is not symmetrical; light is bent unevenly, causing uneven focus
a. Astigmatism
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In dark, photoreceptors release ____ that hyperpolarizes bipolar
a. Inhibitory NT
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Light inhibits photoreceptors from releasing _____, thus stimulating bipolars, which excite ganglionic cells, which transit AP to brain
a. Inhibitory NT
139
T or F cGMP keeps Na+ channels open; light converts cGMP to GMP and Na+ channels close
a. True
140
Nuclear hormone receptors serve as
a. Transcription factors
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Contractile units of skeletal muscle consisting of components between 2 z disc
Sarcomeres
142
In ______ muscle,
| ______ blocks binding sites on actin so cross bridge cannot occur; occurs when ca++ levels are low
Relax; tropomyosin
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When calcium levels rise, calcium bonds to _____ causing conformational change which moves tropomyosin and exposes binding sites allowing crossbridges and contraction to occur: crossbridges cycles stop when calcium levels decrease
Troponin
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Sensitive to horizontal acceleration
Utricle
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Sensitive to vertical acceleration
Saccule
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Neural stem cells
Ependymal cells
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All cells have a negative internal charge and unequal distribution of ions
Resting membrane potential
Result from large anions trapped inside cells
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Mp becomes more negative than rmp: inhibitory inhibits nerve impulses
Hyper polarization
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Mp returns to RMP
Repolarization.
150
VG channels are opened by
Depolarization
151
Mao inhibitors
Antidepressants
152
Collection of cell bodies outside of cna; located in head neck, abdomen, and parallel to the spinal cord
Autonomic ganglion
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Originate in midbrain hindbrain upper thoracic to 4th sacral level of spinal cord
Preganglionic fibers
154
Some preganglionic neurons that exit the spinal cord below the diaphragm do not synapse in the sympathetic chain of ganglia. Beyond the sympathetic chain these preganglionic fibers form
Sphancnic nerves and synapse in collateral ganglion (preventral ganglia)
