Finals Flashcards
(302 cards)
1
Q
Endocrine chemical messengers are called
A
Hormones
2
Q
Four classes of chemical messengers
A
Autocrine,
Paracrine,
Neurotransmitter, and
Endocrine
3
Q
These are chemical signals produced by specialized cells,
secreted into the bloodstream and carried to a target tissue.
A
Hormones
4
Q
Feedback Mechanisms
Increase in product leads to elevation of the activity and the
production rate
A
Positive Feedback
5
Q
Feedback Mechanisms
Increased product leads to decreased activity in the
production rate
A
Negative Feedback
6
Q
Types of Hormones
Hormones that diffuse through the plasma
membrane of its target cell and bind to a cytoplasmic
receptor or a nuclear receptor.In the nucleus, the
combination of the hormone and the receptor initiates
protein synthesis, described later in this chapter
A
Lipid-soluble
7
Q
Types of Hormones
Hormones that bind to the external portion of
membrane-bound receptors, which are integral membrane
proteins on its target cell.
A
Water-soluble
8
Q
Are sensitive to the environment of the body hence cells secrete hormones that control the substance of molecules
based on the bodies
A
Humoral Stimuli
9
Q
Are regulated by action potentials which controls the body’s response to change such as hard rate or blood flow
A
Neural Stimuli
10
Q
Occurs to hormones that stimulate the secretion of other
hormones in the body and in turn are also capable of
inhibiting its actions
A
Hormonal Stimuli
11
Q
Hormones exert their actions by binding to target cell
proteins called
A
receptors
12
Q
The portion of each molecule where a hormone binds is
called
A
receptor site
13
Q
same chemical compositions are called
A
epinephrine
14
Q
Summarize the mechanism of your nuclear receptors
A
Nuclear receptors activates nucleus to produce proteins through messenger RNA (mRNA)
15
Q
cells stimulates itself
A
autocrine
16
Q
stimulates nearby cells without entering the bloodstream
A
Paracrine
17
Q
secreted into the bloodstream, by certain glands and
cells, then travel to their target
A
Endocrine
18
Q
secreted by neurons into the synaptic cleft that activate an
adjacent cell
A
Neurotransmitter
19
Q
The receptors that bind to DNA have fingerlike projections that recognize and bind to specific nucleotide sequences in the DNA called
A
hormone-response elements
20
Q
The combination of the hormone and its receptor forms a
A
transcription factor
21
Q
Summarize the mechanism of membrane-bound receptors
A
It attaches to receptors to activate G protein of your cell membrane to activate, again, the second messenger of the chemical messengers called Cyclic AMP (cAMP) to have stimulations on cells to produce more hormones
22
Q
Derived from amino acids they are an intermediary between steroids and protein
A
Amines
23
Q
Chains of amino acids that are synthesized and stored within the cell in the form of secretory granules and cleaved as needed
A
Peptides and proteins
24
Q
Examples of Amines
A
Tyrosine, Thyroxine, Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
25
What type of Hormones are ACTH, ADH, Oxytocin, PTH, Prolactin, Somatostatin, MSH
Polypeptides
26
What type of Hormones are FSH, HCG, TSH, Erythropoietin
Glycoproteins
27
Give three examples of Protein
Insulin, GH, Calcitonin
28
What is/are the difference/s of Diabetes Mellitus from Diabetes Insp
- Affected by dietary consumption (Type 2)
- Autoimmune capability (Type 1)
29
● Lipid molecules that have cholesterol as a common precursor
● Produced by adrenal glands, ovaries, testes, and placenta
Steroids
30
Give some examples of Steroids
Aldosterone, Cortisol, Estradiol, Progesterone,
Testosterone, activated vitamin D3
31
secrete releasing and inhibiting hormones
Hypothalamic neurons
32
portal system for transport of hypothalamic hormones
Hypothalamo Hypophyseal
33
regulate the anterior pituitary
Hypothalamic hormones
34
travel to their targets
Anterior pituitary hormones
35
● Master gland
● Pea-sized but has a vital role
● Commands also other glands when to secrete hormones
● Asks signals from hypothalamus
● Maintain homeostasis; maintain equilibrium = either regulate or maintain
Pituitary Gland
36
Most abundant of all pituitary hormones.
Somatotropin
Growth Hormone
37
Functions of GH?
● Stimulate the growth of bones muscles and organs
● Stimulates says to produce insulin-like growth factors (IGF)
● Increase the rate of protein synthesis
○ metabolizes fat stores while conserving glucose
38
A decrease in GH is equivalent to?
Abnormal development of pituitary gland = Pituitary Dwarf
39
An increase in GH is equivalent to?
Hormonal secreting tumors Gigantism (acromegaly)
40
A pituitary lactogenic hormone, stress hormone, and a direct effector hormone
Prolactin
41
When Prolactin releases hormones, it will result in?
stimulation of production
42
Lesser production by the prolactin is a result of?
Inhibiting hormones
43
● Thyrotropin
● Binds to the thyroid glands
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
44
The function of TSH?
Stimulates secretion and growth of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)
44
Hypothyroidism is caused by
Destruction of the thyroid gland / Shrink thyroid glands and
secretes little thyroid hormone / Decrease in TSH
45
An increase in TSH will result to
Enlarged thyroid gland and secretes too much thyroid hormone = Hyperthyroidism
46
Stimulate melanin production in melanocytes to make skin
darker
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone
47
Hyperglycemic hormones
Glucagon and Cortisol
48
What are the result/s of the action of PTH
- Stimulation of calcium reabsorption in the blood
- Decrease loss of calcium ions in the urine
49
● Binds to receptors of adrenal cortex
● Increases the secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex called cortisol
● Binds to melanocytes in the skin and increased skin
pigmentation
Adrenocorticotropic Hormones
50
When is Diurnal variation the highest and lowest
highest level between 6:00 AM to 8:00 AM and lowest between 6:00 PM to 11:00 PM
51
These are hormones that serve as important markers in diagnosing fertility.
Gonadotropin Hormones : LH and FSH
52
● Major function is to regulate water balance in the body
● Stops us to urinate
● Acts in the distal convoluted and collecting tubules of the
kidneys
● Conserves water; constricts blood vessels
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) / vasopressin
53
Decrease of ADH production causes
● Kidneys produce large amounts of water
● Diabetes Insipidus (polyuria)
54
What are some of the Inhibitors of ADH Release
Ethanol, cortisol, lithium, demeclocycline
55
● Binds to the smooth muscle cells of the uterus as well as milk let down from the breasts in lactating women
● Causes contraction of the myometrium of the uterus during labor
● Stimulated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus as
cervix is stretched and as infants suck the nipple of the
mother
Oxytosin
56
● Located in the neck
● Butterfly-shaped organ
● Made up of two lobes connected by a narrow band called
isthmus
● Consists of follicular and parafollicular cells (C cells)
Thyroid Gland
57
Function of the Thyroid Gland
● Synthesizes and secretes T3, T4, and calcitonin
58
Most important element in the biosynthesis of
thyroid hormones
Iodine
59
Embedded in the posterior wall of the thyroid gland
Parathyroid Gland
60
Functions of the Parathyroid Gland
○ Increases active vit. D formation
○ Decrease loss of calcium ions in the urine
○ Promotes bone resorption
○ Secretes parathyroid hormone
61
An abnormally low rate of PTH secretion results in
hypopara-thyroidism
62
An abnormally high rate of PTH secretion results in
hyper-parathyroidism
63
Two small glands superior to each kidney
adrenal gland
64
● Inner part of the Adrenal Gland
● Secretes epinephrine (adrenaline or secondary amine
responsible for fight or flight) and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline which is highest concentration in CNS)
adrenal medulla
65
● Outer part
● Secretes steroid hormones
adrenal cortex
66
● Electro-regulating hormone
● The more that it secretes in the body, the lesser in the blood system (risky)
● The lesser that it secretes in the body, the more in the blood system
Zona glomerulosa: Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone)
67
● It is the only adrenal hormone that inhibits the secretion of ACTH
● Hyperglycemic agent that increases the glucose level in the body
Zona Fasciculata: Glucocorticoid (Cortisol)
68
● Serves as precursor for the production of androgen and estrogen in tissues
● It is also the byproduct cortisol synthesis
Zona Reticularis: Adrenal androgens (DHEA)
69
Exhibit exocrine and endocrine functions
Pancreas
70
Released when blood glucose levels are low. binds primarily in the liver, causing glycogen (storage component of liver) stores to be converted into glucose
Alpha Cells ; Glugagon
71
Released when blood glucose levels are high
Beta Cells ; Insulin
72
Released in response to food intake. Inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon and inhibits gastric tract activity.
Delta Cells ; Somatostatin
73
● Most potent male androgen
● Synthesized by Leydig cells
● Promotes maturation of sperm
● Stimulates the development of secondary sex characteristics
● Promotes the closure of epiphysis of long bones
Testes ; testosterone
74
● Produced by the growing Grafiam Follicle
● Secreted in the ovaries prior the ovulation ; also produced in the placenta during pregnancy
● Secretion is regulated by FSH
● Involved in the enlargement of the uterus and breast during pregnancy
Estrogen
75
● Prepares the uterus for pregnancy
● Produced by corpus luteum
● Secreted in the ovaries after the ovulation ; also produced in the placenta during pregnancy
● Secretion is regulated by LH
● Involved in the reduction of contractility of the uterus ; stimulates the growth of mammary glands
Progesterone
76
● Lies in the upper part of the thoracic cavity
● Secretes a hormone called thymosin which aids in the
development of T cells
● White blood cells
Thymus Gland
77
● Small pinecone-shaped structure located superior and
posterior to the thalamus of the brain
● Secretes hormones called melatonin which plays a role in onset of puberty, controls circadian rhythm (sleep), and decreases the pigmentation of the skin
Pineal gland
78
Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus
○ Polydipsia - excessive thirst
○ Polyuria - excessive urination
○ Polyphagia - excessive eating
79
Problem of insufficient ADH secretion from the posterior
pituitary gland.
Diabetes Insipidus
80
Autoimmune disorder in which antibodies are produced that activates the TSH recept
Grave’s Disease
81
● Hypercortisolism
● Increase of cortisol, normal or decrease of ACTH
Cushing’s Syndrome
82
● Decrease of T3 and T4, increase of TSH
● Caused by destruction or ablation of thyroid gland
Hashimoto’s Disease
83
● Caused by an ACTH-producing pituitary tumor
● Increase of cortisol, increase of ACTH
Cushing’s Disease
84
Is a connective tissue consisting of a variety of cells which are suspended in a fluid matrix called
Plasma
85
Composition of Blood
Plasma, Buffy Coat and Formed elements
86
Process that produces formed elements (rbc, wbc, platelets)
Hematopoiesis
87
Disk-shaped with thick edges that transport o2 to tissues
Erythrocytes
88
● Main component of erythrocytes
● Transports 𝑜2
Hemoglobin
89
Hemoglobin with an 𝑜2 attached
Oxyhemoglobin
90
explain the production of RBC
● Decreased blood 𝑜2 levels cause kidneys to increase production of erythropoietin.
● Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow to produce more erythrocytes.
● Increased erythrocytes cause an increase in blood 𝑜2 levels.
91
Cells that
● Lack hemoglobin
● Larger than erythrocytes
● Contain a nucleus
Leukocytes
92
Functions of WBC
● Fight infections
● Removes dead cells and debris by phagocytosis
93
● contain specific granules and include neutrophils,
eosinophils, and basophils
Granulocytes
94
* most common
* remains in blood for 10 to 12 hours then move to tissues
* phagocytes
Neutrophils
95
* reduce inflammation
* destroy parasites
Eosinophils
96
* least common
* release histamine and heparin
* response to allergens
Basophils
97
* no specific granules
Agranulocytes
98
* largest-sized white blood cells
* produce macrophages
Monocytes
99
* immune response
* several different types (T cells and B cells)
* lead to production of antibodies
Lymphocytes
100
minute fragments of cells, each consisting of a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane.
PLATELETS
101
large cells are known as
megakaryocytes
102
When blood vessels are damaged, blood can leak into other
tissues and disrupt normal function.
blood loss
103
Temporary constriction of blood vessel
Vascular spasm
104
Can seal up small breaks in blood vessels
Platelet plugs
105
Blood clotting is also known as
Coagulation
106
Clotting Factor
● Proteins in plasma
● Only activated following injury
● Made in liver
● Require vitamin K
107
● Network of thread-like proteins called fibrin that trap blood cells and fluid
● Depends on clotting factors
Clot
108
Examples of Anticoagulants
heparin and antithrombin
109
● Condensing of clot
● Serum in plasma is squeezed out of clot
● Helps enhance healing
Clot Retraction
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● Process of dissolving clot
● Plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down clot (fibrin)
Fibrinolysis
111
UNIVERSAL BLOOD DONOR
o-
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UNIVERSAL BLOOD RECIPIENT
ab+
113
WHOLE BLOOD
PLASMA + RBC
114
RBC’s ONLY
PACKED RBCS
115
Why is AB+ considered the universal recepient
AB+ is considered as the universal blood donor it’s PRBC’s
matches with both A and B, and the + RH type can accept a -
blood type AB+ is considered as the universal blood donor it’s PRBC’s matches with both A and B, and the + RH type can accept a - blood type
116
Provides information such as RBC count, hemoglobin,
hematocrit, and WBC count
Complete Blood Count (CBC)
117
This occurs when the mother produces anti-RH antibodies that cross the placenta and agglutination and hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes occur
Hemolytic Disease of Newborn
118
How can you prevent Hemolytic Disease of Newborn?
with RhoGAM
119
● Low white blood cell count
● Caused by radiation, chemotherapy drugs, tumors, viral
infections
Leukopenia
120
● High white blood cell count
● Caused by infections and leukemia
Leukocytosis
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Fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries composed of water and some solutes
Lymph
122
White blood cells which are responsible for fighting viral
infections and producing antibodies
Lymphocytes
123
● Reads protein manuscripts;
● Makes antibodies
B cell Lymphocytes
124
Carries fluid in one direction from tissues to circulatory
system
Lymphatic Vessels
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● Tiny, closed-ended vessels
● Join to form lymphatic vessels
Lymphatic Capillaries
126
Removes all fluid that leak out of our blood vessels
Lymphatic Duct
127
● Rest of the body empties from lymphatic vessels
● Empties into left subclavian vein
Thoracic Duct
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Two types of lymphatic duct
Thoracic Duct and Right Lymphatic Duct
129
● Located at the oropharynx
● Forms a protective ring of lymphatic tissue around nasal and oral cavities
Tonsils
130
● Located in mediastinum behind the sternum
● Bilobed organ
● Lymphocyte production and maturation site
Thymus Gland
131
● Located in the abdomen
Functions
● Filters blood
● Detect and respond to foreign substances
● Destroy senescent RBC’s
● Blood reservoir
Spleen
132
● Filtering interstitial fluid collected from soft tissues eventually returning it to the vascular tissues
● It is where lymph moves through,
● and immune system is activated (lymphocyte produced) if foreign substances are detected
Lymph Node
133
Afferent Pathway
From Lymphatic Capillaries - Lymph Nodes
134
Efferent Pathway
Lymph Node - Thoracic Duct
135
● Ability to resist damage from foreign substances substances.
● It protects your body against microbes, toxins, and cancer
cells
Immunity
136
Two types of Immunity in our body
● Innate Immunity
○ Natural
○ Already exists in our body
● Adaptive Immunity
○ Substances that help enhance our immune system
137
Five cardinal signs of inflammation
1. rabor (redness)
2. tumor (swelling)
3. calor (heat)
4. dolor (pain)
5. functio laesa (loss of function)
138
Immunity that develops during your lifetime
Acquired Adaptive Immunity
139
Develops in response to an infection or vaccination
Active AAI
140
Develops after you receive antibodies from someone or somewhere else
Passive AAI
141
● 80 - 85% in serum
● Transplacentral
● Responsible for RH reactions
● Activates complement and increases phagocytosis
● Most abundant
● Reacts in Cold Temperature
● G = Gurang / Late
IgG
142
● 5 - 10% in serum
● Activates complement
● Acts as AG Binding receptor on the B cell surface
● Responsible for ABO reaction
● First AB produces in response to an AG
● Reacts in Room Temperature
● M = Muuna
IgM
143
● 15% in serum
● Secreted into other body fluids (saliva, tears, mucous membranes)
● Protects body surface
● Found in colostrum
IgA
144
● 0.002% in serum
● Binds to mast cells and basophils
● Stimulates the inflammatory response
● Usually responds as Allergic Reaction
IgE
145
● 0.2% in serum
● Functions as an antigen binding receptor on B cells
IgD
146
tissue transplanted from one site to another on
the same person
Autograft
147
tissue graft from an identical person (identical twin)
Isograft
148
tissues taken from an unrelated person
Allograft
149
tissues taken from a different animal species
Xenograft
150
● Production or function of immune cells or complement is
abnormal
● May be congenital or acquired
● Includes AIDS- Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
○ Attacks CD4 Cells
Immunodeficiency
151
White matter of the brain and spinal cord are destroyed
Multiple Sclerosis
152
● Impairs communication between nerves and skeletal muscles
Myasthenia Gravis
153
● A.K.A Type 1 Diabetes
● Destroys pancreatic beta cells that produces insulin
Juvenile Diabetes
154
● Destroys joints
Rheumatoid Arthritis
155
● Affects the kidney, heart, lung, and skin (butterfly rash) Glomerulonephritis
● Impared renal function
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
156
Only externally visible part of the respiratory system
Nose
157
- Where the olfactory receptors are located (mucosa on the superior surface)
- Helps moisten air and traps incoming foreign particles
- Projections have lateral walls call conchae which increases surface air and air turbulence
Nasal cavity
158
Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx
Pharynx
159
Three regions of the Pharynx
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
160
- Known as the voice box
- Located in the anterior part of the laryngopharynx and extends from the base of the tongue to the trachea
- Held in place by membranes and muscles superior to the hyoid bone and a spoon-shaped slap of elastic cartilage (epiglottis)
Larynx
161
Largest hyaline cartilage and protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s Apple)
Thyroid cartilage
162
superior opening of the larynx: routes food to the larynx and air toward the trachea
Epiglottis
163
vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)
Vocal cords (vocal folds)
164
opening between vocal cords
Glottis
165
- Also known as windpipe
- Connects larynx with bronchi
- Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage
- Divides into right and left primary bronchi
Functions:
- Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air
- Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from the lungs
Trachea
166
- Divide from the trachea
- Connects to the lungs
- Line with cilia
- Contain C-shaped pieces of cartilage
Bronchi
167
- Primary organ of respiration
- Cone shaped
- Base rest on the diaphragm
- Apex extend above the clavivle
- Right lung has 3 lobes
- Left lung has two lobes
- Contains many air passageways (division)
Lungs
168
- Smallest branches of bronchi
- Terminal bronchioles end in alveoli
Bronchioles
169
- Site of gas exchange
- Small air sacs
alveoli
170
- In lungs where gas exchange between air and blood occurs
- Formed by walls of alveoli and capillaries
- Alveolar ducts and respirator bronchioles also contribute
- Very thing for diffusion of gases
respiratory membrane
171
- Process of moving air in and out of the lungs
- Uses diaphragm which is a skeletal muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities
Ventilation
172
Phases of Ventilation
1. Inspiration
2. Expiration
3. Forceful expiration
173
- Breathe in
- Uses the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles
- Atmospheric pressure is greater than (high) alveolar pressure (low)
- Diaphragm descends and ribcage expands
Inspiration
174
- Breathe out
- Uses the diaphragm
- Alveolar pressure is greater than (high) atmospheric pressure (low)
- Diaphragm relaxes and ribcage recoils
Expiration
175
- Uses internal intercostal muscles
Forceful expiration
176
Factors affecting Ventilation
* Lung recoil
* Pleural Pressure
* Surfactant
177
- Tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size
- Due to elastic fibers and thin film of fluid lining of the alveoli
Lung recoil
178
- Pressure in the pleural cavity
- Less than alveolar pressure
- Keep the alveoli from collapsing
Pleural Pressure
179
- Mixture of lipoproteins
- Produced by the secretory cells of the alveoli (lecithin and sphingomyelin)
- Reduces surface tension
- Keeps lungs from collapsing
Surfactant
180
Associated organs in the DIgestive Tract
1. Salivary Glands
2. Liver
3. Gallbladder
4. Pancreas
181
Layers of the Digestive Tract
1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis
4. Serosa/adventitia
182
- Connective tissue of organs in the abdominal cavity
Mesenteries
183
Mesentery connecting greater curvature of stomach to transverse colon and posterior body wall
Greater omentum
184
Mesentery connecting lesser curvature of stomach to liver and diaphragm
Lesser Omentum
185
space between lips externally and teeth and gums internally
Vestibule
186
- attached to hyoid and styloid processes of the skull and by lingual frenulum
-pushes down the food
tongue
187
- Tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach
- Transports food to the stomach
- Joins stomach at cardiac opening
Esophagus
188
Process of Swallowing
1. Pharyngeal phase
- Swallowing reflex initiated when bolus stimulates receptors in the oropharynx
2. Esophageal phase
- Moves food from pharynx to stomach
3. Peristalsis
- Wave-like contraction moves food through the digestive tract
189
- Storage tank for food
Produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes
- Contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates and protects epithelial cells from acidic ph (3)
- Site of food for breakdown
- Delivers chyme to the small intestine
Stomach
190
produce a sticky alkaline mucus
Mucous neck cells
191
secretes gastric juices
Gastric glands
192
produce protein-digesting enzymes
Chief Cells
193
produce hydrochloric acid
Parietal cells
194
produce gastrin
Endocrine cells
195
Movement of the Stomach
1. Mixing waves
- Weak contraction
- Thoroughly mix food to form chyme
2. Peristaltic waves
- Stronger contraction
- Force chyme toward and through pyloric sphincter
196
- Measures 6 meters in length
- Major absorptive organ
- Chyme takes 3-5 hours to pass through
- Contains enzymes to further breakdown food
- Contains secretion for protection against the acidity of chyme
Small Intestine
197
- First part of the Small Intestine
- Attached to the stomach which contains microvilli and rugae
- Curves around the head of the pancreas and contains bile
- Contains absorptive cells, goblet cells, granular cells, endocrine cells
- 25cm long
Duodenum
198
- Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
- 2.5 meters long and absorbs nutients
Jejunum
199
- Extends from jejunum to large intestine
- 3.5 meters long
Ileum
200
Absorbs water from indigestible food
Large Intestine
201
- Joins small intestine at ileocecal junction
- Has appendix attached
Cecum
202
- 9 cm structure that is often removed
- Appendicitis is caused by bacterial infection
Appendix
203
- Contains ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid regions
- 1.5 meters long
Colon
204
- Straight tube that begins at sigmoid and ends at
anal canal
Rectum
205
- Digestive and excretory function
- Stores and processes nutrients
- Detoxifies harmful chemicals
- Synthesize new molecules
Liver
206
lipid-digestive enzyme
Lipase
207
continues the polysaccharide digestion that began in the oral cavity
Pancreatic amylase
208
Major excretory system of the body
Urinary System
209
Bean shaped Bilateral retroperitoneal organs
Kidney
210
- Connective tissue around each kidney
- Protects and acts as barrier
Renal Capsule
211
Functional unit of the kidney
Nephrons
212
structures that contains the Bowman’s capsule and Glomerulus
Renal Corpuscle
213
- Enlarged end of nephron
- Open into proximal tubule
- Contains podocytes (specialized cell around glomerular capillaries)
Bowman’s Capsule
214
- In renal corpuscle
- Includes glomerular capillaries, podocytes, basement membrane
Filtration Membrane
215
- Fluid that passes across the filtration membrane (mostly plasma)
Filtrate
216
- Contains descending and ascending loops
- Water and solutes pass through thin walls by diffusion (where reabsorption of molecules and solutes)
Loop of Henle
217
Structure between loop of Henle and collecting duct
Distal Tubule
218
- Empties into calyces
- Carry fluid from cortex through medulla
Collecting Duct
219
involves removing substances from the filtrate and placing back into the blood
reabsorption
220
involves taking substances from the blood at a nephron area other than the renal corpuscle and putting back into the nephron tubule
secretion
221
Urine Formation
Filtration - Reabsorption - Secretion - Excretion
222
Two Main Lipids
1. Triglycerides
2. Cholesterol
223
- secreted from cardiac muscle in the right atrium of the heart when blood pressure increases
- acts on kidneys to decrease sodium reabsorption
Atrial Natriuretic Hormone
224
- secreted by the posterior pituitary gland
- acts of kidneys, causing them absorb more water (decrease urine volume)
- Result is to maintain a normal blood volume and blood pressure
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Mechanism
225
essential role in the development of structural and functional differences between males and females, influencing behavior, and produce offspring
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
226
a special type of cell division that leads to formation of sex cells
Meiosis
227
What are gametes
● sex cells
● sperm in males
● oocytes (eggs) in females
228
How many chromosomes does each sperm cells and each oocyte contain?
23
229
union of sperm and oocyte
Fertilization
230
what develops after fertilization
- Zygote
- develops into an embryo 3 to 14 days after fertilization
231
When does the embryo develop?
14 to 56 days after fertilization
232
When does the fetus develop?
56 days after fertilization
233
Step-by-step process of Fertilization - Fetus
Fertilization
Zygote
Embryo
Fetus
234
- consists of testes, series of cuts, accessory glands, and supporting structures
- ducts include epididymis, ductus deferens, and urethra
- accessory glands include the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands
- supporting structures include scrotum and penis
Male Reproductive System
235
● contains testes
● contains dartos muscle that moves the scrotum and testes close to and away from the body depending on temp.
● sper must develop at temp. less than body temp.
Scrotum
236
● Primary male reproductive organ
● Produces sperm
● In scrotum
Testes
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where sperm is produced
seminiferous tubules
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cells that sperm cells arise from
germ cells
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nourish germ cells and produce hormones
sustentacular cells
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● Thread-like tubules on side of each tested
● Where seminiferous tubules empty new sperm
● Where sperm continue to mature develop ability to swim and bind to oocytes
Epididymis
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● Extends from epididymis and joins seminal vesicle
● Cut during vasectomy
Ductus deferens
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● corpus cavernosum, corpus spongiosum, spongy urethra
● Three columns of erectile tissue filled with blood for erection
● Transfer sperm from male to female
● Excrete urine
Penis
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● Next to ductus deferens
● Helps from ejaculatory duct
Seminal Vesicles
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Surrounds urethra and size of a walnut
Prostate Gland
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Small mucus secreting glands near the base of prostate gland
Bulbourethral Gland
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● Mixture of sperm and secretions from glands
● Provides a transport medium and nutrients that protect and activate sperm
● 60% of fluids from seminal vesicles
● 30% of fluids from prostate gland
● 5% of fluid as from bulbourethral gland
● 5% of fluid is from testes
Semen
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● Provide fructose (sugar)
● Contain prostaglandins which decrease mucus thickness around cervix and uterine tubes and helps sperm move through female reproductive tract
● Contains coagulans that help delivers semen into female
Seminal Vesicles
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Contains enzyme to liquify semen after it is inside female
Prostate Gland
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Neutralizes acidity of male urethra in female vagina
Bulbourethral Gland
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● Includes prevent small about the fluid
● 2 to 5 ml. of semen is ejaculated each time
● 1 ml. of semen contains 10 million sperm
● Sperm can live for 72 hours once inside a female.
. Testicular Secretions
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Path of Sperm
1. Sperm develop in seminiferous tubules (testes)
2. Epididymis (mature)
3. Ductus deferens
4. Receives secretions from seminal vesicles, prostate
gland, and bulbourethral gland
5. Erythromycin or sperm exit the body
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cells from which sperm cells arise
Spermatogonia
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Explain Spermatogenesis
1. Spermatogonia are the cells from which sperm cells arise. Spermatogonia divides by mitosis. One daughter cell remains spermatogonium that can divide again by mitosis. One daughter cell becomes a primary spermatocyte.
2. The primary spermatocyte divides by meiosis to form secondary spermatocytes.
3. The secondary spermatocytes divide by meiosis to form spermatids.
4. Spermatids differentiate to form sperm cells.
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Production of Sperm Cells
1. Germ cells
2. Spermatogonia
3. Primary spermatocytes
4. Secondary spermatocytes
5. Spermatids
6. Sperm Cells
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Sperm Cell Structure
Head
● Contain a nucleus and DNA
Midpiece
● Contain mitochondria
Tail
● Flagellum for movement
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produced in the hypothalamus and stimulates secretion of LH and FSH.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
257
produced in the anterior pituitary and stimulates secretion of testosterone
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
258
produced in the anterior pituitary and prompt spermatogenesis
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
259
produced in the interstitial cells in the testes and is involved in development and maintenance of reproductive organs
Testosterone
260
secreted by cells of the seminiferous tubules and inhibits FSH secretion
Inhibin
261
When does male puberty start
Begins at 12 to 14 and ends around 18
262
Male Puberty Secondary sexual characteristics develop
Skin texture, fat distribution, hair growth, skeletal muscle growth, and larynx changes
263
Complex series of reflexes that result in erection of the penis, secretion of mucus into the urethra, emission, and ejaculation
Male Sex Act
264
The movement of sperm cells, mucus, prostatic secretion, and seminal vesicle secretions into the prostatic, membranous, and spongy urethra
Emission
265
the forceful expulsion of the secretions that have accumulated in the urethra to the exterior
Ejaculation
266
Sensations, normally interpreted as pleasurable, of your during the male sex act and result in an intense sensation call an
orgasm
267
occurs after ejaculation in which the penis becomes flaccid, an overall feeling of satisfaction exists, and the male is unable to achieve erection in a second ejaculation.
resolution
268
The first major component of the male sex act
Penile Erection
269
- Consists of the ovaries, the uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, and mammary glands
- located within the pelvis between urinary bladder and the rectum
Female Reproductive System
270
● Primary female reproductive organ
● Produces oocytes and sex hormones
● One on either side of uterus
ovaries
271
anchor ovaries to uterus
Ovarian ligaments
272
anchor ovaries to pelvic cavity
Suspensory ligaments
273
cells in ovaries that contains oocytes
Ovarian follicle
274
Part of uterus which extends toward ovaries and received oocytes
Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes
275
fringe-like structures around opening of uterine tubes that help sweep oocytes into uterine tubes
Fimbriae
276
sterilization of female
Tubal ligation
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● pear sized structure located in pelvic cavity
● functions: receive, retain, and provide nourishment for fertilized oocyte, where embryo resides and develops
● body: main part
● cervix: narrow vision that leads to vagina
uterus
278
Layers of the uterus wall
● Perimetrium (serous)
● Myometrium (muscular)
● Endometrium
279
● Extends from uterus to outside of body
● Female population organ that receives during intercourse
● Allows menstrual flow
● Involved in childbirth
● Contains very muscular walls and the mucous membrane
● Very acidic to keep bacteria out
vagina
280
● Larger and outer folds of skin
● Equivalent to male scrotum
Labia majora
281
Finn and inner fold of skin
Labia minora
282
● Small erectile structure located in vestibule
● Equivalent to male penis
Clitoris
283
● Where 2 labia minora unite over clitoris
Prepuce
284
● Space in which vagina and urethra are located
Vestibule
285
● Release an oocyte from the ovary
● due to LH secreted from the anterior pituitary
Ovulation
286
● Mature follicle after ovulation
● Degenerates if egg is not fertilized
Corpus luteum
287
When does female puberty begin?
Begins between 11 to 13 and is usually completed by 16
288
first episode of menstrual bleeding
Menarche
289
● Organs of milk production in breast
● Modified sweat gland
● Female breast begin to enlarge during puberty
● Consist of lobes covered by adipose
● Lobes, ducts, lobules are altered during lactation to expel milk
Mammary Glands
290
produced in the anterior pituitary and causes ovulation.
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
291
produced in the anterior pituitary and prompt follicles in the ovaries to begin development
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
292
○ Proliferation of endometrial cells
○ Development of mammary glands (especially duct system)
○ Control of LH and FSH secretion
○ Development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics
Estrogen
293
○ Enlargement of endometrial cells and secretion of fluid from uterine glands
○ Maintenance of pregnancy state
○ Development of mammary glands (especially alveoli)
○ Control of estrogen, FSH, and LH secretion
○ Development of secondary sex characteristics
Progesterone
294
Series of changes that occur in sexually mature, non-pregnant females
Menstrual Cycle
295
● Time when endometrium is shed from uterus
● Average is 28 days and results from cyclical changes that appear in the endometrium
Menses
296
Stages of Menstrual Cycle
○ Menstrual bleeding (menses)
○ Estrogen and progesterone levels are low
○ Follicle begins to mature
Days 1 to 5 - Menses (shedding of endometrium)
297
Stages of Menstrual Cycle
○endometrium rebuilds
○ estrogen levels begin to increase
○ progesterone levels remain low
○ follicle matures
Days 6 to 13 - Proliferative (between end of menses and ovulation)
298
Stages of Menstrual Cycle
○ oocyte is released due to LH
○ estrogen levels high
○ progesterone levels are increased
○ cervical mucus thins
Day 14 - Ovulation
299
Stages of Menstrual Cycle
○Endometrium is preparing for implantation
○ Estrogen levels decrease (low)
○ Progesterone levels (high)
○ Cervical mucus thickens
Days 15 to 28 - Secretory (between ovulation and next menses)
300
Stages of Menstrual Cycle
1. Menses
2. Proliferative
3. Ovulation
4. Secretory
301
● Time when ovaries secrete less hormones and number of follicles in ovaries is low
● Menstrual cycle and ovulation are less regular
● Hot flashes, fatigues, irritability may occur
● Estrogen replacement therapy may be used to decrease side effects
Menopause
