Fiona White

Question 1

WHO (World Health Organisation) Aggression Statistics

Answer 1

Each year, nearly 1.4 million people worldwide lose their lives to violence.

Question 2

Barling, et al. 2009

Answer 2

Defining Aggression
It is reasonably well established in the literature that when aggression becomes more physical in nature (assault, murder etc) it is referred to as violence

By definition, all violent behaviours are aggressive whereas not all aggressive behaviours are violent

Behaviour initiated that is intended to physically and/or psychologically harm another individual and that the target is motivated to avoid

Behaviour directed towards the goal of harming another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment (Baron & Byrne, 2003, p.435)

Question 3

Sub-types of aggression (Brengen et al. 2008)

Answer 3

i) direct physical aggression (bullying, hitting, kicking and/or punching)
ii) direct verbal aggression (such as name calling), and
iii) indirect or relational aggression (such as gossiping, social exclusion and ostracism).

• Indirect aggression is as harmful as physical aggression

Question 4

Bandura’s (1973; 1987) Social Cognitive (Learning) Model

Answer 4

where aggressive behaviors are modeled from others’ behaviours via vicarious or observational learning.

Theories of aggression

Question 5

Crick and Dodge’s (1994) Social Information Processing Model and Huesmann’s (1998) Script Model

Answer 5

Developmental models of antisocial and aggressive behavior. Children acquire aggressive cognition and aggressive internalised scripts through early experiences and socialization.

Theories of aggression

Question 6

Anderson and Bushman’s (2002) General Aggression Model (GAM)

Answer 6

The GAM is the only social–cognitive model that explicitly incorporates biological, personality, social processes, basic cognitive processes (e.g., perception, priming), short-term and long-term processes, and decision processes into understanding aggression.

Theories of aggression

When dealing with multi-causal phenomenon such as aggression, with several interacting risk factors, the development of effective reduction strategies will be a considerable challenge. The first step is to target these known risk factors.

Question 7

Biological Risk Factors of Aggression

Answer 7

Genes and brain structures
One gene is the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene. The enzyme that the MAOA gene codes for breaks down serotonin, a neurotransmitter that is low in antisocial individuals.
Males with a common polymorphism (variant) in the MAOA gene have an 8% reduction in the volume of the amygdala, anterior cingulate, and prefrontal cortex (Meyer-Lindenberg et al., 2006) - brain structures involved in emotion and found to be compromised in antisocial individuals.

Question 8

Personality Risk Factors of Aggression: Bettencourt et al. (2006)

Answer 8

Individuals who were high in trait aggressiveness and trait irritability behaved more aggressively than those who were low in trait aggressiveness under both neutral and provoking conditions.
Persons who score high on trait aggressiveness/irritability direct greater levels of aggressive behavior toward others even when situations are relatively neutral may suggest that they have the capacity to engage in a cold-blooded style of aggressive behavior.

Question 9

Situational Risk Factors of Aggression

- Konijin, Bijvank, & Bushman (2007)

Answer 9

Aggression was operationalised was loud noise, aggressive people identified with the aggressor more fully and they way they administered the noise was such a level it made permanent damage. Suggests games provoke aggression.

Have shown that wishfully identifying with violent characters in the virtual world can influence adolescents to behave more aggressively against others in the real world

Question 10

Anderson et al. (2010)

Answer 10

Meta-analysis on the effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior included 130 studies, 380 effect sizes and N = 130, 296.

Exposure to violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggressive behaviour, aggressive cognition, and aggressive affect and for decreased empathy and prosocial behaviour.

For experimental studies, r+ = .210. For cross-sectional studies the best raw and best partials analyses yielded average effect sizes of r+ = .262 and .171, respectively. For longitudinal studies the best raw and best partials analyses yielded average effect sizes of r + = .203 and .075, respectively

Question 11

Biological Aggression Reduction Strategies

Answer 11

Despite making significant neuro-scientific advances we still do not yet know how to directly reverse genetic predispositions to antisocial behaviour;
Although we know that the neuro-circuitry implicated in the regulation of aggression is closely related to the circuitry involved in fear conditioning and affective control –a more elaborated delineation between these regions is still needed (Siever, 2008).
It is also clear that serotonin modulates prefrontal activity, but greater regional specificity is still required

Needs medication more than other interventions, medication such as prozac which helps numerous things not just aggression and violence. Specificity needs work.

Raine: Looked at criminals, the brains of clinical sample very different from a non-clinical sample. Looked at 41 murderers, had poorer prefrontal cortex to do with inhibition.

Over a 12 year period a man killed 64 people, showed good frontal brain functioning. Like smoking/ cancer, not one size fits all.

Question 12

Self-control or self-regulatory training Aggression Reduction Strategies

Answer 12

strategies are available for individuals with high levels of trait aggressiveness (see Bettencourt et al. (2006)’s meta-analysis)
Research by Denson and colleagues (2011) has shown that self-control training (SCT) over a 2-week period can decrease anger and aggression in response to provocation

Question 13

Denson et al. (2011)

Answer 13

Design of Denson et al. study (2011):
i) Pre-test measures
ii) SCT for 2 weeks or control condition. Taught people how to self-control over a 2-week period in response to provocation. 70 part., 35 in SCT and 35 in control. SCT group reuire to use non-dominant hand between 8am and 6pm for two weeks. Had to use a computer mouse, stir tea etc. Had to exert effort- effortful self-control required, asked to exert as much effort as possible.Were also required to fill in an effort online diary every second day and got a self-report 1-10 measure of how much effort they were putting in.
iii) Provocation – negative feedback. Got participants to give a speech and gave negative feedback to every speech
iv) Retaliation via white noise blast using Taylor Paradigm (1967)- measured aggression by how long and loud the blast was
v) Post-test measures
Results: SCT reduced aggression among individuals high in trait aggression. Participants who received the training also reported less anger than controls. Undergrad students. not clinically tested in the real world yet.

Question 14

Greitmeyer et al., (2012)

Answer 14

Tested if the same basic social cognitive processes activated when playing aggressive videogames should yield prosocial effects when video game content is primarily prosocial.

i) 60 German students had provocation with negative feedback
ii) played either prosocial game ‘fire-fighters’, neutral game ‘ping-pong’ or violent VG, ‘mortal combat’ for 15 mins
iii) completed arousal and mood scales
iv) retaliation via white noise blast
Results: Prosocial gamers behaved less aggressively than the neutral gamers. Difference in white noise retaliation but no difference in arousal. Importantly, participants playing prosocial game were not primed to use less aggression but were primed to use prosocial behaviour. This acts as an antagonist of aggressive responses. They may have a new script to retrieve when administering white noise. This is a short-term study.

Question 15

Granic, Lobel & Engels’ (2014) recent review

Answer 15

Benefits of playing video games

i) Cognitive – Shooter games (Grand Theft Auto etc) improve spatial skills; and more accurate attention allocation.
“…the research on the negative impact of these games needs to be balanced with evidence for the cognitive benefits….” (p. 70).
ii) Motivational - Certain types of games will foster healthy motivational styles (persistence in the face of failure), while others may not.
iii) Social – some video games (World of Warcraft) promote social skills such as cooperation, support, and helping behaviors.
“…The games people choose to play, in turn, exert diverse influences on players’ motivations, emotional states, and social interactions….” (p.74).

Question 16

Goldstein (1999) Negative effects of media violence

Answer 16

1) Aggression effect:Increased copycat and/or self-directed behaviour
2) Victim effect: Increased fearfulness, mistrust and self-protectiveness
3) Bystander effect: Increased desensitisation and callousness

Question 17

Goldstein (1999) Parental strategies for reducing aggression

Answer 17

1. Watch a few children’s shows yourself. Be your child.
2. Plan viewing in advance. Emphasise non-violent shows
3. Monitor child’s actual viewing. Explain undesirability of initiating violence.
4. Watch some shows with your child. Contrast real and pretend.
5. Provide interesting alternative activities, reading.
6. Explain false or exaggerated commercial claims.
7. Encourage legislation, television organisations and advertisers to increase non-violent video programming/

Question 18

Boxer and colleagues (2006) School-based education strategies for reducing aggression

Answer 18

there are over 200 documented evaluations of programs to prevent aggression. Some of the consistent meta-analytic findings include:

i) programs delivered by teachers are more effective than those delivered by research staff;
ii) programs targeting primary school were more effective than those targeting high schools;
iii) programs intervening in the whole school environment were more effective than those targeting the classroom solely.

Question 19

Boxer and Dubow (2002)

Answer 19

Social-cognitive programming has been identified as a ‘best practice’ for school-based programs, for example, improved social problem-solving or reframing of hostile attributions are processes that have been emphasised.

Programs need 4 steps:

1. Cue attention and interpretation;
2. Script search and retrieval; should have prosocial scripts through role playing and prosocial videos so they have another alternative to retrieve if provoked
3. Script interpretation
4. Evaluation of enviromental response, need to evaluate the responses of everyone around them as well to see if its effective.

research shows that aggression follows a reliable pathway from initial onset of minor aggression (teasing, being mean, hitting someone to hurt), to physical fighting (getting involved in physical fights), and finally to violence (physically attacking people, using weapons etc).

Tolan et al. (2000) found that among violent males youths aged 15 years of age, 94% had progressed through this pathway.

Question 20

Nixon and Werner (2010) School-based education strategies

Answer 20

recently evaluated the Creating a Safe School (CASS) program amongst 405 sixth grade students. Over 10-12 classroom sessions:
a) raising awareness and increasing knowledge of relational aggression (RA)
b) building empathy
c) challenging beliefs endorsing or tolerating RA
Results: The CASS intervention was only effective for students who were high in RA at pre-test. Floor levels of aggression can’t be reduced no matter how long the program goes for. Need to break aggressive behavior early.

Question 21

School-based education strategies

Answer 21

The Vienna Social Competence training program is 13-week classroom based program that focuses on increasing the salience and cognitive accessibility of ‘socially competent’, non-aggressive behavioural response options in conflict situations.

Gollwitzer, Banse, Eisenbach and Naumann’s (2007) evaluation found no short-term (pre-test vs post-test – 13 weeks later) differences in aggression between the control and training classes, however, between post-test and follow-up (4mths later) an increase in aggressiveness was observed among the control classes, but not among the trained classes.

Question 22

Gender pay gap

Answer 22

In November 2015, the gender pay gap in Australia stood at 17.3%. FT AWE of men ($1,602.80) compared to women ($1,325.10), a difference of $277.70 per week.

Question 23

Australian Legislation: Sex Discrimination Act (1984) Kate Jenkins

Answer 23

a) Promote equality between men and women;
b) Eliminate discrimination on the basis of sex, marital status or pregnancy and, with respect to dismissals, family responsibilities; and
c) Eliminate sexual harassment at work, in educational institutions, in the provision of goods and service, in the provision of accommodation and the administration of federal programs.

Question 24

Women in law firms

Answer 24

The percentage of female law graduates has been at around the 50-60 %mark for around three decades now (Lawyers Weekly, March, 2014), however, they account for only 24% of partners in law firms (Financial Review, 2015).
According Elizabeth Broderick (previous Sex Discrimination Commissioner), the system of billable hours employed by the majority of law firms in private practice could amount to sexual discrimination if it acts as an impediment to women seeking partnership.
Lawyers take maternity leave they get less hours and are more unlikely to get a partnership. Women have long been disadvantaged because of this system. Need a system based on lawyers overall quality, not quantity.

Question 25

Karpin Report (1995)

Answer 25

Despite some progressive organisations, the glass ceiling for women in upper management has been maintained for some time, arguably to the detriment of Australia’s enterprise and economic performance….the limited success of women in accessing senior management and executive positions, despite a long period of publicity and legislation, was an additional argument for the most concentrated focus to be placed here.

Recommended policy changes:

• Voluntary targets (not quotas) agreed by industry/government for the number of women in senior levels of management within 5 years.
• A database of suitably qualified women for selection by private sector companies to sit on boards of directors.
• Improved targeting of women for management development.
• Increased funding to promote diversity in management and the workforce.
• Making child care readily available, affordable and of a high quality. Most women’s entire salaries go towards childcare
• Increasing time and amount of paid ‘parental’ leave. Either parent can have 18 weeks, the parent earning less usually takes time off, also creates bias.

The Karpin and other policy reforms over the years have all met with very limited success due to ineffective implementation. Insufficient direct action on industry to guarantee change.

Question 26

glass ceiling

Answer 26

“a solid but invisible barrier which blocks womens’ progress to higher managerial levels and creates a wage-gap between the two sexes” (Melamed, 1995).

Sex discrimination at work has shifted to jobs in upper levels of management as only one in ten executives are women. Even when length of experience and education are equal amongst male and female employees, women still receive fewer promotions

Question 27

Explaining the glass ceiling effect

i) Intragroup similarity and prototypicality

Answer 27

The Social Identity approach suggests that inequalities in the number of male and female leaders could arise in part because women are seen by those who appoint them (mainly men) to be less protoptypical of the groups they are expected to lead than are men.
Women are less likely to be seen to define the leaders prototype (because they do not maximise intragroup similarity), and are less likely to be doing the defining (Ryan & Haslam, 2007).

lack of similarity between employees and managers may prohibit the formation of friendships and lessen strategic networking opportunities

Question 28

Explaining the glass ceiling effect
ii) Sex-role Stereotypes
Eagly and Karau (2002)

Answer 28

argued that the incongruity between what means to be female and what is seen to be managerial can produce two forms of prejudice:

a) less favourable evaluation of the potential for women to take on leadership roles compared to men, and
b) less favourable evaluations of the actual behaviour of female leaders.

Due to the noted automatic associations between masculinity and management observers are less likely to ‘spontaneously categorise’ women as leaders or potential leaders. People react faster to ‘male manager’ than ‘female manager’: automatic biases.

Men fit cultural construals or stereotypes of leadership better than women do and thus have better access to leader roles and face fewer challenges in becoming successful in them.

If a woman’s behaviour confirms the gender stereotype, they are not thought to be acting as proper leader, but if their behaviour is consistent with the leader stereotype, then they are not thought to be acting as a proper woman.
Violating either of these stereotypes (gender or leadership) can then result in negative evaluations of women and their performance (Ryan & Haslam, 2007).

Question 29

Explaining the glass ceiling effect
iii) Organisational structures
Dipboye, Smith and Howell (1994)

Answer 29

note that organisational barriers include, sexist wording on performance appraisals (Xerox Corporation changed “intense desire to win”, which seemed stereotypically male, to “intense desire to succeed”, which seemed more gender neutral); differences in tasks assigned; training opportunities and mentoring relationships (Smith, Olson & Falgout, 1991).

Question 30

the glass cliff

Answer 30

Research has more recently demonstrated that female leaders are more likely to be appointed
i) in a time of poor performance, or
ii) when there is an increased risk of failure, and
as such, their leadership positions can be seen as more precarious than those of men (Ryan & Haslam, 2009).

According to Ryan et al. (2015), the Glass Cliff is a result of a selection bias which is a result of gender stereotypes: “think crisis – think female stereotypes (e.g., communication skills, ability to encourage others etc) vs “think manager- think male stereotypes ” (e.g., independence, decisiveness etc).

Cook and Glass (2014) argue that women are given less leeway to lead their firms out of crisis, while the ultimate return of the male leader is understood as a signal that things have returned to normal – “the saviour effect”.

These events in turn serve to confirm stereotypes that women are unsuitable for high office.

Question 31

Benefits of gender diversity in the workplace

Richard et al., (2013)

Answer 31

research has found that managerial gender diversity benefits sociocultural beliefs and financial returns

-tested 155 banking employees and found that when cooperation and collaboration is actively encouraged, gender diversity resulted in superior performance for the organisation. Conversely, if cooperation and collaboration is actively discouraged, gender diversity resulted in poorer performance for the organisation

Question 32

Benefits of gender diversity in the workplace

Nishii (2013)

Answer 32

-tested 1,324 employees from a biomedical organisation and found that relationship and task conflict were significantly lower in gender–diverse groups with a high climate for inclusion (e.g., fair employment practices, a lack of stigma associated with expressing a feminine identity, men and women’s perspective valued equally etc) than gender-diverse groups with a low climate for inclusion

Question 33

Affirmative action

Answer 33

refers to policies and procedures which attempt to increase the representation of an underrepresented group…in education or employment through the consideration in decision making of applicant race, sex, or other protected group status

Question 34

Crosby et al. (2006)

Answer 34

AA is needed to assure diversity of student bodies and the workforce and help ensure that selection procedures and decisions are fair.

Question 35

Types of AA Plans

Answer 35

Type 1: Improving the recruitment and hiring of minorities and females- organisations set up recruitment programs at universities.

Type 2: Hiring and promoting females and minority applicants amongst a pool of equally qualified applicants.

Type 3: Hiring and promoting female/ minority applicants based on minimum qualifications

Type 4: Searching for female/ minority applicants until a suitable applicant is found who meets the qualifications for this position.

Type 1 & 2 ‘soft’ type 3 & 4 ‘hard’ with less support

Question 36

Workplace changes to reduce gender discrimination

Answer 36

Changing promotion criteria (Naff, 1994) from ‘gender-related’ terms to ‘job-related’ or ‘performance-related’ terms.

Mentoring women on negotiating salaries, financial security and superannuation;

Educating employers on family friendly and effective flexible work practices;

Ensuring that workplace cultures are as gender-neutral as posible;

Increasing the number of senior female role models;

Increasing the availability of quality part-time work (at senior levels, with opportunities for career progression);

Providing opportunities to attend senior management workshops including the: Chief Executive Women’s Leading program

Question 37

CEW Leaders Program

USyd Equity Fellowships: Brown and Thompson

Answer 37

The CEW Leaders Program aims to inspire women to take on more senior leadership roles and enhance their career and personal growth opportunities. Chief executive women from Telstra, NAB, NAB, ANP and Sydney Uni met once a month eight times. Mostly corporate, women discussed similar obstacles despite different work places

Equity fellowship Brown: provides up to $60,000 a year to allow people to focus on research when they’re primary caregivers
Thomson: Also gives people a year just for research. There are more progressive things becoming available in Unis as people are aware of the problems

Question 38

Strategic Promotions Advice and Mentoring (SPAM) Program

Answer 38

Program: supporting Level D Women in Science to apply for promotion to Level E

NOVEMBER
Promotions myths and legends workshop
Presentation of key statistics, discussion about the program

Promotions workshop
Attend Provost’s promotions advice workshop
OUTCOMES
Participants nominate the group they wish to join

DECEMBER

CV review
Mentors review CVs and offer advice on development areas

MARCH
Final draft review
Mentors review final drafts of applications.
OUTCOMES
Participants finalise drafts and submit applications in April

JULY
Mock interviews

Panels of 2 or 3 mentors conduct mock interviews for participants- get them to say ‘I’ instead of ‘we.’ ‘Talkfests’ don’t work, you need mastering and practice. It is important to have male mentors as well.

Celebration!
Applicants and mentors invited to celebration event following Level E interviews

DECEMBER
End of year / announcement SPAM graduation
Successful applicants to consider becoming mentors for future schemes.

Resources
Library of de-identified promotions applications from men and women.

Great results: After SPAM introduced in USYD, increase from 1 women Level E promotion from 2011-2013 to 7 in 2013-2015

Question 39

Research: Making AAPs more successful

Answer 39

• Receive endorsement from the executive level (i.e., CEOs; Vice Chancellors etc)
• Provide clear and persuasive communication about the goals and justification for AA policy.
• Emphasise the self-interest aspects for non-beneficiaries of AAPs (emphasise long-term benefits and increased job satisfaction).
• Publicly emphasise to both current/future employees the practical value of a diverse workplace

Question 40

White et al. (2008)

Answer 40

Research: Making AAPs more successful

Need to identify factors that promote attitudinal and behavioral support for AA policies within a higher education context

This study integrated two theories & showed it’s all about central processing. Central processing messages more positively influence more positive beliefs, evaluations and support. Change valence: it isn’t about merit, it’s about helping fix the imbalance first.

-tested an integrative model drawing on the strengths of Ajzen and Fishbein’s (1980) theory of reasoned action (TRA) and Petty and Cacioppo’s (1986) elaboration likelihood model (ELM) amongst a sample of 184 Psyc1000 students.

Individuals who indicated a higher subjective likelihood (intention) of engaging in AA behaviour were more likely to demonstrate support for AA policies by giving special consideration to minority candidates- confirming the mediating role of intention in the AA attitude-behaviour relationship, as predicted by the theory of reasoned action: TRA)

Question 41

Factors supportive of AAPS

Answer 41

• Belief in prevalence of discrimination
• Diversity experiences
• Women
• Personal experience of discrimination

Question 42

Non-supportive factors of AAPs

Answer 42

• Political conservatives
• Belief in merit
• Structure of AAP is preferential treatment

Question 43

Research: addressing the problem of prototypicality

Stainback and Kwon (2012)

Answer 43

Recruited 1,596 employees from private and public sector organisation in South Korea and found that having female managers reduces gender inequality among subordinates by

a) reducing ingroup preference and stereotypes and
b) increasing women’s access to career-enhancing social networks and mentoring opportunities

Question 44

Research: addressing gender stereotypes in academia (Cairns, Devine et al., 2013)

Answer 44

A total of 2,290 faculty in 92 departments participated, a two and a half hour interactive workshop given to address bias in uni work places. Given to address individual rather than ‘gender group’. A pretest found majority of faculty had gender stereotype- men are leaders- even women had internalized the bias.

-Interactive Workshop on utilising all available talent to advance science and how gender bias impedes this goal. How can gender equity advance your field?

Module 1:
Origins of bias as a habit

Module 2:
Bias Literacy
- Expectancy bias
- Gender norms
- Role congruity
- Redefining credential
- Stereotype priming
- Stereotype threat

Module 3:
Bias reduction
- Stereotype replacement
- Counter-stereotype imaging
- Perspective-taking
-Individuation
- Increasing opportunities for contact

The majority of faculty had gender stereotype-congruent leadership bias (male-leader/female-supporter), an intervention that approached gender bias as a remediable habit was successful in promoting gender equity behaviors which seemed to improve the department climate.

Question 45

Australian Legislation: The Racial Discrimination Act (RDA:1975)

Answer 45

The Racial Discrimination Act (RDA) applies to everyone and makes racial discrimination unlawful in Australia.

It aims to ensure that we can all enjoy our human rights and freedoms in full equality regardless of race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin.

Govt unsuccessful attempt to repeal section 18c of RDA in 2014. People do have a right to be bigots, you know. Attorney-General George Brandis

More than 76% of 4100 submissions opposed the Government repeal proposal which was ultimately retracted.

Question 46

Racial discrimination and health in Australia

Answer 46

still remains a 10-year gap in life expectancy between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.
The current rate of progress is not on track to meet the life expectancy target by 2031.
Indigenous youth and young adult suicide is high: from 2008–2012, the suicide rate for Indigenous Australians was almost twice that of non-Indigenous Australians. Of particular concern is the rate for Indigenous males aged 20-24 years

Question 47

Harrell (1994, 1997)RALES

Answer 47

Measuring racial discrimination, i) Subjective measures

Developed the Racial and Life Experiences Scale: here the 20-item Daily Life Experiences (DLE) subscale measures the perceptions of the frequency of daily raced-based micro-aggressions in the past year –
“being treated rudely or disrespectfully”
“being ignored, overlooked, or not given services (in a restaurant, store)”
[Where 0 = never to 5 = once a week or more].

Measures the past year although some variants say the last week or month. There’s a limitation of retrospective reporting of things, although now people can use apps for daily diary writing. Like all subjective methods it has the problem of self-perceptions.

Question 48

Williams et al’s. (1997) Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS)

Answer 48

Measuring racial discrimination, i) Subjective measures

In your day-to-day life, how often do any of the following things happen to you (0 = Never to 5 = Almost everyday)

1. You are treated with less courtesy than other people are.
2. You are treated with less respect than other people are.
3. You receive poorer service than other people at restaurants or stores.
4. People act as if they think you are not smart.
5. People act as if they are afraid of you.
6. People act as if they think you are dishonest.
7. People act as if they’re better than you are.
8. You are called names or insulted.
9. You are threatened or harassed.

Question 49

Lynn, et al. (2008)

Answer 49

Measuring racial discrimination ii) Objective measures

conducted a study on ‘Consumer racial discrimination in tipping’ and found that both White and Black consumers discriminated against Black service providers by tipping them less than White service providers whilst controlling for customer perceptions of service quality and other variables – a similar finding to a lot of IAT research. When women/ minorities do implicit association tests they also have implicit bias due to learned behavior.

Question 50

Riach and Rich (1991)

Answer 50

sent carefully matched pairs of written job applications (with regard to age, qualifications, experience, except for race) in response to advertised vacancies (originally devised by Jowell & Prescott-Clarke, 1970). In their study, one letter purported to be from a White Anglo Australian, and others from Greek and Vietnamese Australians.

Both male and female Vietnamese applicants were denied an interview on one third (33%) of the occasions. The overall difference in racial discrimination between Vietnamese and Anglo-Celtic applicants is significant: chi-squared = 37.62, p

Question 51

Booth et al. (2012) audit discrimination study

Answer 51

Like Riach and RIch (1991) but used Italian, Chinese, Middle Eastern, and Indigenous names.

Also sent fake CVs to employers, to obtain an experimental measure of the relationship between job callbacks and the racial soundingness of the applicant’s name.
They found clear evidence of discrimination, with Chinese and Middle Easterners both having to submit at least 50% more applications in order to receive the same number of callbacks as Anglo candidates. Indigenous applicants also experience statistically significant levels of discrimination.

Question 52

Abu-Rayya & White, 2010

Answer 52

Not all majorities discriminate against racial minorities

Within a society such as Australia which explicitly adopts a multicultural ideology towards minority groups and individuals, Bourhis’ (1997) IAM predicts that the most likely acculturation orientations to be endorsed by majority Anglo-Australian members are Integration and Individualism.
Extending this model, it is predicted that individuals holding these Integration and Individualism acculturation orientations are also more likely to hold positive attitudes towards minority groups.

A sample of 170 (116 females and 54 males) Psyc2013 participant with a Mean age of 22.09 (SD = 5.98) took part in this study.
Attitudes towards Australian Muslims (a modification of Stephan & Stephan’s, 1985, Intergroup Anxiety Scale) tested outgroup attitudes.

Participants were asked how they would feel mixing socially with members of the Muslim community in Australia, by rating nine positive (relaxed) descriptors and nine negative (awkward) descriptors on a five-point scale where 0 = not at all to 4 = extremely. (Positive: = 0.89; Negative =  = 0.86).

Anglo-Australians’ positive attitudes towards Muslim Australians was significantly higher than their negative attitudes [t(169) = 12.60, p

Question 53

Acculturation orientations

Answer 53

Individualist: The individual maintains his/ her own cultural identity while at the same time becoming a participant in the host culture

Assimilation: The individual gives up his/ her cultural identity and becomes absorbed into the host culture

segregationist is a person who believes that people of different races should be kept apart

Intergrationalist: an approach in the theory of communication that emphasizes the importance of context and rejects rule-based models of language.

Question 54

Challenging Racism Project (2015)

Answer 54

Found 85% of Australians believe racism is present in Australia.
N = 1845 Sydney respondents
Found from targets perspective, 27% treated less respectively, 28% called names/ insulted.

Question 55

Priest, et al., (2013)

Answer 55

i) meta-analysis found that across 121 studies, 76% revealed a positive association between reported racism and mental health outcomes (e.g. depression, anxiety) amongst children and young people.
ii) Moderators included: age, gender, cognitive development; coping responses to racial discrimination such as anger, talking to someone, accepting it; social support such as friends, community support; and parenting quality.

Question 56

Pedersen and Barlow (2008)

Answer 56

racism should be dealt with simultaneously via top-down action such as government interventions and policies as well as bottom-up action such as inclusions in school and university curricula.

Pedersen and Barlow (2008) conducted a Australian university-based prejudice reduction strategy involving the implementation of a 6-week cultural psychology unit amongst a sample of 123 university students aged of 21 years.
A the end of the 6-week lecture series 62 students completed a second series of questions concerning their attitudes towards Aboriginal Australians.

Some promising results were obtained when students’ responses in week 1 and week 6 were compared:

(i) there was a significant increase in acceptance of Aboriginal Australians or a significant decrease in prejudice;
(ii) an increasing number of students saw special treatment of Aboriginal Australians as a good thing; and
(iii) false beliefs about Aboriginal Australians decreased significantly.

High attrition rate, why? Lectures focused on the collectivist nature of Aboriginal culture, prejudice & it’s affects on Aboriginal children, false beliefs surrounding Aboriginal Australians, cultural biases of white IQ tests when administered amongst white australians. Spatial skills of Abotriginal Australians and the societal causes of poor academic performance of some Aboriginal children.

-Gave the post-test immediately, may have priming effect. Should re-test after 3/6 months.

Question 57

Reducing Racism: Australian Human Rights Commission campaigns

Answer 57

The National Anti-racism Strategy (2012 - )
To promote a clear understanding in the Australian community of what racism is, and how it can be prevented and reduced.

Objectives:
Create awareness of racism and how it affects individuals and the broader community
Identify, promote and build on good practice initiatives to prevent and reduce racism, and
Empower communities and individuals to take action to prevent and reduce racism and to seek redress when it occurs.

Struggles with effective implementation of anti-racism strategy because of government changes.

‘Racism Stops with Me’: Asks organisations in Australia to pledge their commitment to tolerance and anti-racism by becoming formal campaign supporters. Currently there are several hundred supporters across business, sport, education, community organisations and local government.

Workplace cultural diversity toolkit:
The tool is intended to help organisations employ the best person for the job, maximise the benefits of a culturally diverse workforce and minimise the risk of complaints of discrimination. Some organisations are not aware that they inadvertently discriminate against employees, and potential employees, from different cultural backgrounds. This tool highlights situations where this could occur and suggests some steps to minimise the chances that this will happen:

Question 58

White & Abu-Rayya, 2012

Answer 58

Research: Improving intergroup harmony between Muslims and Christians

Integrate dual identity and Electronic(E)-contact (DIEC) tenets into a nine-week classroom intervention amongst a 121 Muslim and 104 Christian high school students in 2009, 2010, 2011.

Previous frameworks have failed to incorporate the social strengths of contact and the cognitive advantages of dual identity recategorisation to enhance interethnic harmony.

Recategorisation in the form of dual identity provides cooperative contact situations with the cognitive mechanism needed to successfully achieve the superordinate or common goal - the main driver behind reducing prejudice and discrimination.

A reduction in intergroup anxiety across Time was also found, A reduction in intergroup bias across Time was found, A reduction in intergroup bias was maintained
Outgroup knowledge increased with Time,

Religion moderated the effect of virtual E-contact on subtle prejudice, F(1,94) = 5.25, p = .024. Simple effect contrasts indicated that for the religious participants, subtle prejudice was significantly lower in the virtual E-contact condition compared to control F(1,94) = 6.46, p = .013.

Had 12-month follow-up, looked at contact hypothesis and dual consciousness. Intergroup anxiety reduction, substantive across time. If you’re non-religious, e-contact doesn’t change your perspective, but it does if you’re religious.

Question 59

Conclusion: Positive change is possible

ii) Student’s role – Psychological Citizenship

Answer 59

Kernahan and Davis (2007) conducted a pre-post-test study that showed that university students who participated in 13-week semester diversity course felt more responsible for helping to correct problems of discrimination and for taking action.

Aberson (2007) used longitudinal data from a survey of 1000 college students at admission and in their fourth year. Results demonstrated that participation in diversity-related campus activities (exposure to information or activities devoted to understanding interracial and interethnic relationships in courses, readings, lectures, discussions and cultural diversity activities/events on campus) resulted in positive changes in their AA attitudes.

Question 60

Conclusion: Positive change is possible iii) Researcher’s role:

Answer 60

• Continue to use scientific method and theory to promote social justice and fairness principles;
  
  • pursue long-term, theory-driven, multi-level, bi-directional strategies that involve BOTH groups of individuals (e.g., the racial minority and the racial majority group).
• Emphasise BOTH common and distinct identities (Dual Identity)
  Collaborate with Industry partners - All Together Now:
  http://alltogethernow.org.au/everyday-racism/

Question 61

Conclusion: Positive change is possible

i) The Government’s role:

Answer 61

Anti-racism Strategy
‘Racism Stops with me’ campaign
http://itstopswithme.humanrights.gov.au/
Workplace cultural diversity toolkit
Harmony Day- March, 21
http://www.harmony.gov.au/
“It is a day for all Australians to embrace cultural diversity and to share what we have in common”.

Question 62

Ageism

Answer 62

one of “ the most condoned institutionalised forms of prejudice in the world” (Nelson, 2002, p. ix).
Ageing is unavoidable and represents a pervasive and negative consequence of their permanent group membership.
Age discrimination happens when someone is treated unfairly or denied an opportunity because of their age, when age is irrelevant to the person’s ability to take advantage of that opportunity (e.g., succeeding at work, pursuing further education, or following one’s interests).

Question 63

Age discrimination

Answer 63

Direct
When an older person is not employed in an office job because it is assumed that they would not have the ability to learn new computer programs.
Indirect
When an employer requires an older person to meet a physical fitness test which younger people can meet more easily, if the fitness standard is not reasonable/necessary for the job in question.

Question 64

Elderly stereotypes vs reality

Answer 64

Psychological research that shows older workers are often
-more productive
-have lower absenteeism and turnover rates than younger workers.
In general older employees do not suffer from poorer health, diminished vigour, or declining mental abilities when compared with younger employees

Question 65

Cuddy, et al. (2005)

Answer 65

asked American respondents to rate 24 social groups on lists of traits reflecting warmth and competence. On perceived warmth the ‘elderly’ group were above 96% of the other groups (disabled, homeless etc) but on competence ratings fell below 78% of the other groups.

Question 66

Erber and Prager (1999)

Answer 66

found that people are also more likely to attribute memory failures of older adults to intellectual incompetence, and memory failures of younger adults to lack of attention or effort

Question 67

(Cohen, 1990)

Answer 67

Pity may look benign on the surface but it can create a dangerous self-fulfilling prophecy – some older people internalise this message and this can decrease their independence and increase their helplessness

Question 68

Nussbaum et al. (2005)

Answer 68

found that the assignment of labels that convey inferiority (e.g., pitiful) actually renders people helpless and creates self-induced dependence.

Question 69

(McCann & Giles, 2002).

Answer 69

Older people who need work have trouble finding and keeping jobs, often because of unfair and inaccurate assessments of their presumed or actual productivity

The age of 65 has become a magic number associated with retirement…. premature retirement leaves older people especially those who strongly identify with work, “Feeling isolated and confused”

Question 70

Branscombe et al’s. (1999)

Answer 70

rejection-identification model proposes that perceptions of discrimination increase group identification for members of low status groups, particularly when the boundaries between low status groups and the high status groups are perceived as impermeable (i.e., upward movement into higher status groups is not possible).

Question 71

Garstka (2004)

Answer 71

conducted a study involving a sample of 59 young adults/university students (M =18.8 years) and 60 older adults (M = 75 years) from the community.
Participants completed measures of age discrimination (4 items), age group identification (5 items), personal self-esteem (Rosenberg’s 1979 Scale:10 items), life satisfaction (5 items), and age group status (3 items rating the status if young, middle-aged and older adults).

Study found rejection-identification model: negative relationship between perceived discrimination and psychological well-being, positive discrimination between between ageism and age group identification, leads to positive psychological well-being. Age group identification buffer from harm/ mediator. This was for the elderly group, when run for the younger group there was no mediator. Although there is an association for age identification and discrimination, the mediator only works for low-status groups.

Question 72

Age Positive

Answer 72

Public Campaign Australian Human Rights Commission: Age Positive Website. Elderly women alone contribute 16 billion to Australias economy.

Older Australians make a significant contribution to our society

Older Australians are vital for Australian business - as a growing market segment and as employees. And we all benefit from their contribution as carers and volunteers

Too often we only hear about the negative stereotypes of older people. It can appear as if they are all sick, frail, lonely and grumpy. Nothing is further from the truth.
Most older Australians are happy and active, they enjoy life, and they have the skills, knowledge and desire to continue to make a significant contribution to the economy – now and in the future.
Age Positive is about recognising this contribution and the important and diverse roles of older Australians.

Question 73

Cherry and Palmore (2008)

Answer 73

Factors to reduce ageism: Educational programs

increasing people’s awareness of ageist behaviours and disseminating accurate information about ageism could counteract stereotypes and is a necessary first step toward reducing ageism as a pervasive social phenomenon.

Educational programs that expose people to stereotype-inconsistent and individuating information about the elderly

Question 74

Cottle and Glover (2007)

Answer 74

Factors to reduce ageism: Educational programs

found that positive attitudes towards the elderly and knowledge about the elderly increased significantly from Time 1 to Time 2 for 146 students who participated in a lifespan developmental course.

Recent research (see Meisner, 2012) has shown that negative age stereotyping elicits effects on behaviour almost three times larger than positive age stereotypes.
Consequently it is important that reduction strategies must BOTH
i) counter negative stereotypes (incompetent)  AND
ii) promote positive age stereotypes (wisdom; experience and life perspective)

Question 75

Tam et al. (2006)

Answer 75

Factors reducing ageism: Inter-generational Contact

examined the role of grandparent–grandchild communication in improving intergenerational attitudes. These authors showed that contact with one’s grandparents was associated with more favourable explicit attitudes toward older adults.

Question 76

Bousfield & Hutchison, 2010

Answer 76

Factors reducing ageism: Inter-generational Contact

High quality intergenerational contact rather than quantity of contact was positively associated with young people’s (M = 20.4 yrs; N = 55) attitudes and behavioural intentions towards the elderly

Question 77

Iweins and colleagues (2013)

Answer 77

Mediate the relationship of elder workers and outgroup stereotypes: dual identity and intergroup need to be in place to avoid stereotypes in the workplace.

Intergenerational contact was adapted from Voci and Hewstone (2003). Respondents rated the degree to which their contact with older workers was natural, positive, unpleasant, competitive, and involuntary from 1 = totally disagree to 7 = totally agree.
The organizational multi-age perspective required participants to rate six items on the extent to which their company supported a multi-age diversity perspective (e.g., ‘‘In its age management diversity, my organization considers that recognizing the specificity of each generation leads to harmony between workers’’) on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 = never to 7 = always.
Dual identity was measured by multiplying their age group (ingroup) identity [(e.g., ‘‘You identify yourself as a member of your generation at work’’] with their organizational (common) identity [(e.g., ‘‘You identify yourself as a member of your organization’’].

All of this is based on self-reports/ correlational. There wass no experimental manipulation. We only know correlations, not causation.