for exam - ANNETTE

Question 1

what is language?

Answer 1

systematic and conventional use of sounds/signs/written symbols for the purpose of communication

Question 2

what are the 4 components of language?

Answer 2

1. phonology
2. morphemes
3. syntax
4. pragmatics

Question 3

what are phonemes?

Answer 3

the sound system of a language

Question 4

what are morphemes?

Answer 4

combination of phonemes, smallest units of language that have meaning

Question 5

what is syntax?

Answer 5

rules for combining words, putting morphemes together

Question 6

what is pragmatics?

Answer 6

social rules about language/context

Question 7

what are the 3 theories attributed to explaining language?

Answer 7

skinner - learning theory
chomsky - nativist
piaget/vygotsky - interactionist

Question 8

what is skinner’s theory?

Answer 8

language develops through reinforcement and imitation, children repeat words that are reinforced

Question 9

what are the pros and cons of skinner’s theory

Answer 9

pros - can account for phonology and semantics as these can be imitated
cons - cannot account for syntax or novelty - can’t imitate novel phrases

Question 10

what is the ‘wug test’

Answer 10

provided children with new words and looked to see how children apply rules of language to a novel exemplar
they are skilled at it

Question 11

what is chomsky’s theory?

Answer 11

language is biologically innate

Question 12

what are the pros and cons of chomsky’s theory?

Answer 12

pros - there are language specific areas of the brain and certain genes associated with specific language abilities
language is universal and there are similarities in development
cons - underestimates role of environment
doesnt explain how language acquisition device works

Question 13

what is piaget/vygotsky’s theory?

Answer 13

children are social beings and motivated to communicate so language develops through interactions

Question 14

what are the pros and cons of piaget/vygotsky’s theory?

Answer 14

pros - children want to communicate even when they dont have words
learning through overhearing and listening
use the environment to help communicate
cons - process needs to be understood more

Question 15

what occurs in the process of word learning at 10 months?

Answer 15

babies have less than 50 words

learned through repetition and attentional mechanisms

Question 16

what occurs in the process of word learning at 12 months?

Answer 16

linguistics and social cues used to learn new word meanings
first words pronounced
holophrastic - single word sentences

Question 17

what occurs in the process of word learning at 18-24 months?

Answer 17

vocab spurt to 150 words

variability in quantity and quality

Question 18

what occurs in the process of word learning at 2-5 years?

Answer 18

more growth in syntax

comprehension and production have continuous growth

Question 19

what is quine’s problem of reference?

Answer 19

if you don’t have a starting point or a shared language with anyone, you have to figure out what words mean

Question 20

what are 4 influences on the learning of words?

Answer 20

1. general learning mechanisms
2. biases/constraints
3. linguistic context
4. social pragmatics

Question 21

what are general learning mechanisms?

Answer 21

associations are formed between words and objects through exposure
perceptual salience - attaching a word to something that is most obvious in the context

Question 22

what whole object bias?

Answer 22

babies assume a word applies to the whole object

Question 23

what is mutual exclusivity?

Answer 23

babies assume objects only have one name

Question 24

what is shape bias?

Answer 24

babies can extend words from one novel object to objects of like kind

Question 25

what did the 'dax' experiment study and find?

Answer 25

studied shape bias exemplar taught as dax 4 different conditions varying shape/texture/size children asked which shape was still a dax different shapes were not the same category but size and texture change were the same category

Question 26

what is linguistic context?

Answer 26

using context to figure out what words mean

Question 27

what did Brown (1957) study and find?

Answer 27

how context shapes understanding of words showed children a picture telling them it was a 'sib' then asked them to point to what was the sib sentence structure helps them understand

Question 28

what are social pragmatics?

Answer 28

social cues provided by speakers eg. gaze, intentions, knowledge useful in ambiguous situations

Question 29

what did Dare Baldwin's gaze study find?

Answer 29

eye gaze is indicative of which word corresponds to an object important for indicating intention

Question 30

what did Tomasello study and find?

Answer 30

use of intention said to kids 'let's dax mickey' 2 conditions - statement followed by whoops (accidental) or there (intentional) children more likely to learn word with intention that follows

Question 31

what is selective trust and word learning?

Answer 31

children are less likely to learn from ignorant/inaccurate speakers children do not want to learn incorrect words for fear of not being able to communicate

Question 32

what is conventionality and word learning?

Answer 32

words are effective communicative tools because they are shared by people in their linguistic community

Question 33

what are the 4 realisations required to understand that words are conventional?

Answer 33

1. words have correct meanings 2. words are shared 3. words are special 4. word meanings are tied to linguistic communities

Question 34

what is the evidence that words have correct meanings?

Answer 34

Koenig & Echols (2003) - showed babies a duck and a speaker looked at it and called it either a cat or a duck - babies more frustrated towards cat speaker - when speakers could not see object, babies not frustrated with either - shows babies expect people to use correct words for things

Question 35

what is the evidence that word meanings are shared?

Answer 35

Henderson & Woodward (2012) - show babies a person with 2 novel objects, one of them labelled modi new person comes in and picked up same or different object and called it modi - babies looked longer when different object called modi - showed they expect others to use same word

Question 36

what is the evidence that word meanings are special?

Answer 36

Henderson & Woodward (2012) - object reacted positively towards - another person comes in and reacts positively to either the same or different object - babies are not surprised, do not generalise preferences

Question 37

what is the evidence that word meanings are only shared within a particular linguistic group?

Answer 37

Scott & Henderson (2013) - induction - 2 people singing song in different langauges - habituation - one speaker picks up object and labels it - then same speaker picks up the same or different object and labels it - different condition where different speaker picks up and labels - babies know she speaks a different language so no difference in attention compared to difference in attention with same person

Question 38

what is personality?

Answer 38

combination of attributes, motives, values and behaviours unique to an individual

Question 39

what is self concept?

Answer 39

how you perceive your own attributes and traits

Question 40

what is self esteem?

Answer 40

evaluation of self worth based on the self perceptions that make up your self concept

Question 41

what is identity?

Answer 41

overall sense of who you are and where you fit into society

Question 42

what 5 things is personality shaped by?

Answer 42

1. biology 2. dispositional traits - endure over time 3. characteristic adaptations - how we adapt to specific situations 4. narrative identities - made through past + future 5. human nature, culture, context

Question 43

what are 3 factors of personality traits?

Answer 43

1. variable across individuals 2. stable across development but not in universal stages 3. heritable, early emerging

Question 44

what is the big 5?

Answer 44

``` OCEAN openness conscientiousness extraversion agreeableness neuroticism ```

Question 45

what is HEXACO?

Answer 45

``` honesty-humility emotionality extraversion agreeableness conscientiousness openness ```

Question 46

what occurs at 6 months on the timeline of emergence of self?

Answer 46

infants distinguish themselves from the rest of the world and appreciate that they can act on their external world

Question 47

what did Bahrick & Watson study and find

Answer 47

infants recognising themselves as individuals babies sit in chair with legs covered and shown a tv of their legs and another set of legs babies looked longer at the screen that wasnt their legs, familiar with their own body moving

Question 48

what occurs at 12 months on the timeline of emergence of self?

Answer 48

infants distinguish themselves from other individuals appreciate individuals have different perspectives realise attention can be shared

Question 49

what occurs at 18-24 months on the timeline of emergence of self?

Answer 49

emergence of categorical self (me vs. you) | recognise themselves as individuals

Question 50

what did the mirror task study and find?

Answer 50

how ingrained is understanding of face and self? children required to look in a normal and convex mirror and take a sticker off their head no significant difference between either for either age group

Question 51

what did the video task study and find?

Answer 51

same as mirror but with a normal and pixelated video covering face children did worse in the pixelated video

Question 52

what are 5 factors that contribute to early self awareness?

Answer 52

1. cognitive development 2. brain development 3. social interaction 4. attachment 5. culture

Question 53

what are 3 differences in self concept between childhood and adulthood?

Answer 53

1. descriptions of self move from physical attributes to more psychological and enduring qualities 2. self portraits move from comparisons to others to more abstract 3. greater self awareness in adulthood

Question 54

what are the differences in self esteem between childhood and adolescence?

Answer 54

childhood - self esteem generally stable unless ideal self does not live up to actual self adulthood - self esteem drops because of insecurity, puberty etc. experiencing adolescence fully helps with this

Question 55

how can parents help their children's self esteem?

Answer 55

encourage and support but not turn a blind eye to children's weaknesses

Question 56

what 4 things happen to self esteem in adulthood?

Answer 56

ideal self more aligned with present self more positive about past self self esteem consistent across adulthood changes in goals and standards

Question 57

what is temperament?

Answer 57

biologically based tendencies to respond in predictable ways to events foundation of personality

Question 58

who are the 3 theorists for temperament?

Answer 58

Thomas & Chess Kagan Rothbart

Question 59

what did Thomas & Chess theorise?

Answer 59

easiness and difficultness babies are easy (40%) - even tempered, open adaptable difficult (10%) - active, irritable, cry slow to warm up (15%) - slightly inactive and moody

Question 60

what did Kagan theorise?

Answer 60

behavioural inhibition - how active a child is in new situations 50% - shy in new situations 10% - not shy or restrained

Question 61

how is Kagan's theory shown through development?

Answer 61

there is continuity of shyness/not shyness through adolescence different activations in brain cause shyness or not anxiety linked to overprotective parents

Question 62

what did Rothbart theorise?

Answer 62

surgency, negative affect, effortful control surgency - actively approach new situations in emotionally positive way negative affect - sad, fearful, irritable effortful control - how able is child to regulate emotions?

Question 63

how do temperaments persist across a lifetime?

Answer 63

shy and fearful - removed in childhood and potentially depressed in adulthood hard to control - high impulsiveness as teenager, prison as adult easy going - easy going lifetime

Question 64

how does culture effect temperament?

Answer 64

certain temperaments are celebrated more in different cultures through parenting

Question 65

what 3 things cause stability in temperament?

Answer 65

1. heredity 2. foundations laid in childhood 3. gene environment correlations

Question 66

what 4 things cause change in temperament?

Answer 66

1. biological factors/injury 2. environment change 3. mid life crisis 4. not fitting with current environment

Question 67

what is an ethnic-racial identity?

Answer 67

identification with a particular ethnic group

Question 68

what are the 4 stages in identity formation?

Answer 68

1. identity diffusion - no thoughts about identity 2. foreclosure - no thoughts but seem to have identity 3. moratorium - identity crisis 4. identity achievement - resolution of crisis

Question 69

what 4 things contribute to identity formation?

Answer 69

1. cognitive growth 2. personality 3. relationship with parents 4. cultural context

Question 70

what is positive self bias?

Answer 70

we see ourselves in a positive way and think negative stereotypes do not aply

Question 71

what is social role hypothesis?

Answer 71

male and females play certain roles in society and this fuels stereotypes

Question 72

which study examples gender stereotypes?

Answer 72

hospital - babies dressed in different colours and observed how adults treated them/talked about them

Question 73

what are gender roles?

Answer 73

patterns of behaviour that females and males should adopt in a particular society

Question 74

what are gender norms?

Answer 74

desirable behaviours/characteristics associated with each gender

Question 75

what are stereotypes?

Answer 75

overgeneralised and largely inaccurate beliefs about what males and females are like

Question 76

which 3 theories are used to explain gender role development?

Answer 76

1. biosocial - hormone changes intensify differences 2. social learning - parents and peers differentiate genders (same sex stick together) 3. cognitive theories - organised set of beliefs and expectations about a gender (gender schema)

Question 77

how is social learning theory seen in gender role development from birth-3 years?

Answer 77

- babies behave in gender stereotyped ways in play - children learn from what is being modelled to them (differential reinforcement) - observational learning = internalise parents views

Question 78

how is social learning theory seen in gender role development from 3-6 years?

Answer 78

stereotype rigidity is strong, believe stereotyped occupations are better gender typed behaviour prefer to play with same sex children

Question 79

how are cognitive theories seen in gender role development from 7-puberty?

Answer 79

less rigid in stereotypes | view gender as a trait that remains stable and consistent across development

Question 80

how does gender role development change in adolescence/adulthood?

Answer 80

more rigid in norms as dating emerges | less differentiation in roles when marriage + children occur