forensic psychology Flashcards
(119 cards)
1
Q
offending profiling
A
- a tool used by police/investigators to try and narrow the field of likely suspects
- usually involves careful scrutiny of a crime scene and analysis of evidence (including witness reports)
- this allows the probable characteristics of the offender to be generated
2
Q
what are the two types of offender profiling?
A
- top-down
- bottom-up
3
Q
development of top-down profiling
A
- began in the US
- came about due to FBI work in the 70s
- specifically due to FBIs data gathered from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers (including Ted Bundy and Charles Manson)
4
Q
What is the top-down approach to offender profiling?
A
- also known as the ‘typology approach’ for its use of categories (organised and disorganised)
- involves matching what is known about the crime and the offender to a pre-existing template developed by the FBI
- murderers or rapists are classified (pushed down) into either organised or disorganised categories based on evidence
- this classification is just one part of the top down approach.
5
Q
organised - crime scene
A
- evidence of having planned crime
- little evidence left at scene
- victim is deliberately targeted, offender has a “type”
- high degree of control
6
Q
organised - offender
A
- high IQ
- may even be married with children
- skilled professional occupation
- socially and sexually competent
- go to inordinate lengths to cover their tracks and are often forensically savvy
- likely to follow the news media reports of their crime and may even correspond with the media
7
Q
disorganised - crime scene
A
- reflects impulsive nature of the attack eg. body left, semen, blood, fingerprints
- victim not known, selected at random
- little evidence of planning, spontaneous/spur of the moment
8
Q
disorganised - offender
A
- lower than average IQ
- unskilled work or profession
- sexually incompetent, failed relationships, socially incompetent
- live alone, often close to where the offence took place
9
Q
eg. ted bundy (organised offender)
A
> known to have raped, tortured and brutally murdered over 30 women
charming and highly intelligent, would win the trust of victims
many of his victims resembled his college girlfriend who broke up with him (long, dark hair parted in the middle) - his “type”
skilled profession (law)
socially and sexually competent
evaded the police for years (even escaping twice)
10
Q
constructing an FBI profile
A
- Data assimilation
- Crime scene classification
- Crime reconstruction
- Profile generation
11
Q
data assimilation
A
(1st stage of constructing a profile)
investigators gather information from multiple sources eg. crime scene photos, police reports, etc.
12
Q
crime scene classification
A
(2nd stage of constructing a profile)
decide whether the crime scene represents an organised or disorganised offender
13
Q
crime reconstruction
A
(3rd stage of constructing a profile)
hypotheses are generated about what happened during the crime such as victim behaviour
14
Q
profile generation
A
(4th stage of constructing a profile)
4. profilers construct a “sketch” of the offender including physical and behavioural characteristics
15
Q
the bottom-up approach
A
- Profilers work up from evidence collected from the crime scene to develop hypothesis about the likely characteristics, motivations, and social background of the offender
- The profile is “data driven”
- No initial assumptions are made about the offender and the approach relies heavily on computer databases
- the “British” approach to offender profiling
16
Q
what can the bottom-up approach be divided into?
A
- investigative psychology
- geographical profiling (used with investigative)
17
Q
what is investigative psychology?
A
- tries to apply statistical procedures to analyse the crime scene
- establishes patterns of behaviour that seem to occur across crime scenes
- creates a database for baseline comparisons
- specific details of an offence can then be matched against the database to reveal important details about the offender, their personal history, family, background, etc.
- cases can be linked together if the evidence tells us that they seem related
18
Q
what are the three main features of investigative profiling?
A
- Interpersonal coherence
- Forensic awareness
- The significance of time and place
19
Q
interpersonal coherence
A
- people’s behaviour is consistent so their crime will contain indicators of their everyday life eg. if they are violent against women
20
Q
forensic awareness
A
- have they been in trouble with the police before, do they know how to cover their tracks
> Davies et al (1997) found rapists who conceal their fingerprints often have a previous conviction of burglary
21
Q
the significance of time and place
A
- where are the crimes committed? Does this correlate with where an offender might live?
22
Q
what did Canter propose (G. profiling)
A
- offenders reveal themselves through the locations they commit crimes in
- often restrict their crimes to places they are familiar with (often near where they live or habitually travel)
23
Q
how is geographical profiling useful?
A
- provides investigators with a ‘centre of gravity’ which is likely to include the offender’s base (becomes more apparent with more offences)
- may also help to make educated guesses about where the offender is likely to strike next - the ‘jeopardy surface’
- to work out the nature of the offence (planned or opportunistic)
- to work out the offenders mental ‘map’, mode of transport, employment, etc.
24
Q
geographical profiling
A
- G. profiling analyses the locations of connected series of crimes, considering:
1. where they are committed
2. the spatial relationships between each scene
3. how they might relate to an offenders place of residence
25
Canter's circle theory
(Canter and Larkin 1993) proposed two models of offender behaviour:
1. the marauder - operates near their home base
2. the commuter - likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence
26
how does geographical profiling link to schemas?
understanding and feeling comfortable, comfort zones around work/our home, etc.
27
evaluation of the bottom up approach
+ works for more offences than the top-down approach
+ scientific and objective, focused on data
+ supporting evidence - Canter and Lundrigan collated info from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the US, they found spatial consistency in where bodies were disposed
- just because someone fits the profiler does not mean they are the offender (eg. Colin Stagg was falsely taken to court for sexually assaulting and repeatedly stabbing Rachel Nickel in 1992, 17 years later the real perpetrator - who had been dismissed due to being "too tall" was convicted)
28
the atavistic form
- created by Lombroso in 1870
- suggested that offenders are 'genetic throwbacks' a primitive sub-species that are 'biologically' different to non-criminals
- such individuals are ill-suited to conforming to the rules of modern society
- this criminal sub-type could be identified as being in possession of 'physiological markers' that were linked to types of crime
29
types of criminals and their characteristics according to Lombroso
Murderers - eg. blood shot eyes, curly hair, long ears
Sexual deviants - eg. glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips, projecting ears
Thieves - eg. expressive face, manual dexterity, small wondering eyes, thin and reedy lips
Women - eg. shorter and more wrinkled, darker hair and smaller skulls than 'normal' women
29
what characteristics did Lombroso identify as being indicators of criminality?
a narrow, sloping brow
a strong prominent jaw
high cheekbones
facial asymmetry
dark skin
existence of extra toes, nipples, or fingers
insensitivity to pain
use of primeval slang (a throwback to their savage ancestry)
tattoos
unemployment
(10)
29
"Lacking evolutionary development, their savage and..."
"Lacking evolutionary development, their savage and untamed nature meant they would find it impossible to adjust to the demands of civilised society and would inevitability turn to crime." - Lombroso
30
Lombroso's "evidence"
'I investigated the facial/cranial/physical features of hundreds of Italian convicts both living and dead. After examining the skulls of 3839 living criminals, and 383 dead criminals I concluded that 40% of crimes were accounted for by ativistic characteristics'
He measured weight, height, span of their arms, average seated height, hand size, necks, thighs, legs, feet, eye colour, etc.
> only looked at criminals, no comparison to a control group so could also be true for non-criminals
31
genetic explanations for criminality
One or more genes predispose (create vulnerability) in individuals leading to criminal behaviour. However, there hasn't been a 'criminal gene' identified.
1. twin studies
2. candidate genes
32
twin studies to explain criminality
- if there is a higher concordance rate in MZ twins then this suggests that genetics has an influence.
- eg. Lange (1930) found significantly higher concordance rates for criminality in identical twins than non-identical twins
- eg. Raine reviewed research on delinquent behaviour of twins and found 52% concordance for MZ twins and 21% for DZ twins.
- However, identical twins will also share very similar environment so it is hard to separate genetics from environment.
33
Lange (1930)
- investigated 13 identical twins and 17 non-identical twins, where one of each of the twins in each pair had served time in prison
- found that 10 of the identical twins but only two of the non-identical twins had a co-twin also in prison.
- This suggests that there is a genetic factor to criminality.
34
Raine (1993)
- reviewed research on delinquent behaviour of twins
- found 52% concordance for MZ twins and 21% for DZ twins.
35
candidate genes to explain criminality
1. low levels of the MAOA gene have been linked to aggression/impulsive behaviour
> However, this works in combination with the environment rather than on its own
2. low activity of the CDH13 gene - has been associated with ADHD and substance abuse
36
MAOA gene (criminality)
- low levels of the MAOA gene which is linked to the break down of neurotransmitters in the brain (eg. serotonin, dopamine, and noradrenaline)
- therefore linked to aggression/impulsive behaviour
> However, this works in combination with the environment rather than on its own
37
CDH13 gene (criminality)
low activity of the CDH13 gene has been associated with ADHD and substance abuse which are both strongly associated with criminality
> hard to be sure of cause and effect
38
Brunner - criminal behaviour
Brunner studied 28 male members of a Dutch family who had histories of impulsive and violent criminal behaviour such as rape and attempted murder. When Brunner analysed the DNA of these men it was found that they shared a gene that led to low MAOA levels.
39
Moffitt et al. (1992)
conducted a longitudinal study on 443 New Zealander males recording which participants had been abused as children and what level of MAOA gene they had.
Abuse + low activity MAOA = 9x more likely to be aggressive.
40
the diathesis stress model for criminality
This considers the vulnerability (the diathesis) along with stressors in the environment. Eg. maltreatment in childhood (an environmental factor) could lead to criminality if individuals have low MAOA gene
> Caspi (2002) found higher risk of antisocial behaviour and aggressive adults in those with the MAOA gene who had also experienced maltreatment.
41
Evaluation of the biological explanation for criminality
+ supporting evidence eg. Lange's twin study
> issues with twin study evidence, they have very similar environments so it is difficult to be sure
- Mednick et al (1984) studied 13000 Danish adoptees and found that it is not just bio factors
- over-simplifying, possibly reductionist
- implications for the legal system and for moral responsibility
42
Lange's twin study
found that identical twins in prison were more likely than non-identical twins to have a twin also in prison
> issues with twin study evidence, they have very similar environments so it is difficult to be sure that the findings suggest a biological basis
43
Mednick et al (1984)
studied 13000 Danish adoptees and found that:
- when neither the bio or adoptive parents had convictions, percentage of criminals was 13.5%
- when a bio parent had convictions this rose to 20%
- 24.5% when both adoptive and biological parents had convictions
44
Eysenck's criminal personality
- believed that criminal behaviour had a biological basis, that it was influenced by genetics and the structure of an individual's inherited, predisposing nervous system
- but also that personality was an innate function which could link to criminality
- 'trait theory'
45
'trait theory'
- Eysenck
- if you have certain 'traits', you may have a criminal personality:
1. high extroversion
2. high neuroticism
3. (added later) high psychoticism
46
definition of extroversion
usually characterised as being an outgoing, sociable person who is a risk taker. The opposite of this dimension would be a more cautious person who likes their own company
47
definition of neuroticism
often characterised by nervousness, can upset easily or be regarded as 'unstable'.
48
definition of psychoticism
often characterised by insensitivity, a lack of conscience, and impulsive behaviour.
49
biological basis of extroversion
- often have underactive nervous systems so are driven to seek constant excitement and stimulation
- higher likelihood of engaging in risky behaviours
- may struggle to learn from their mistakes
50
biological basis of neuroticism
- instability of their sympathetic nervous system
- affects the flight or fight response
- tend to be unstable, get upset easily and are prone to overacting in threatening situations
51
biological basis of psychoticism
- elevated levels of testosterone which often leads to increased aggression and a notable lack of empathy
52
extraversion and crime
usually characterised as being an outgoing, sociable risk taker
53
neuroticism and crime
these individuals might be prone to erratic, emotionally charged acts of crime due to their instability. They are more likely to react emotionally.
54
psychoticism and crime
These individuals may have less concern for others, committing violent, cruel, or antisocial acts. This is due to their inability to empathise with the victim.
55
Eysenck - role of socialisation
- also recognised the importance of environmental factors such as upbringing and social influences in shaping criminal behaviour.
- influential due to their interaction with an individual's personality
56
Eysenck - role of socialisation eg. gratification
eg. gratification, most individuals with a criminal personality type are driven towards stimulation and excitement so are likely to be susceptible to the lure of immediate fulfilment/reward - instant gratification.
57
Eysenck - role of socialisation eg. conditioning
- an individual with a criminal personality type may have difficulty learning from punishment
- emotional instability of those scoring high on neuroticism could lead to impulsive and irrational responses
- those scoring highly on extroversion may seek thrills and novelty regardless of negative consequences
- therefore those with a criminal personality cannot be easily 'conditioned' into more desirable behaviours.
58
evaluation of the criminal personality
+ supporting research (Eysenck compared 2070 male prisoners with 2422 male controls, the prisoners scored higher on measures of psychoticism, neuroticism, and extraversion)
- too simplistic eg. the five factor model
- personality tests can be unreliable eg. due to social desirability bias
- personality is fluid and constantly changing
59
the five factor model
the five factor model - a newer theory - suggests that other personality dimensions such as openness to new experiences are important too (so Eysenck's theory is too simplistic)
60
cognitive explanations for offending
- Kohlberg's moral reasoning
- cognitive distortions (hostile attribution bias, minimalisation)
61
what did Kohlberg do?
- theorised a three-level theory of moral development based on people's judgements and decisions regarding right and wrong
- it suggests that higher stages represent more sophisticated moral reasoning
- he based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas (such as the Heinz dilemma) which he gave to 72 boys aged 10-16.
62
Kohlberg's stages of moral development
3 levels, 6 stages:
Pre-conventional morality (punishment and reward stages)
Conventional morality (good boy/girl and law/order stages)
Post-conventional morality (social contract and universal ethical principle stages)
63
preconventional moral reasoning
(up to age 9/10)
1. Punishment Stage - reasoning is based on whether the act will lead to punishment
2. Reward Stage - being good is a duty to society. We obey to show respect to authority.
64
conventional moral reasoning
(most adolescents and adults)
3. Good boy/girl stage - being good is whatever pleases others and for approval.
4. Law and order stage - being good is a duty to society. We obey to show respect to authority.
65
post conventional moral reasoning
(0-15% of over 20s)
5. Social contract - right and wrong is now determined by personal values. If rules infringe our own sense of justice, we may choose to ignore them.
6. Universal ethical principle - the individual establishes his or her own rules in accordance with a personal set of ethical principles
66
how does Kohlberg's theory relate to offending?
- Criminals often exhibit lower levels of moral development, typically falling into the 'pre-conventional' stage (stages 1 and 2) while non-criminals tend to progress to higher levels
- this could be due to egocentrism, manifesting as a lack of consideration for societal impact or others' perspectives
- individuals in stages 1 or 2 may commit crimes when they perceive low risks of punishment or anticipate rewards like money/respect
67
cognitive distortions
- errors or biases in people's information processing system characterised by faulty thinking
- have been linked to the way criminals interpret other people's behaviour and justify their actions
- two main types: hostile attribution bias and minimalisation
68
hostile attribution bias
violence is often associated with a tendency to misinterpret the actions of others. eg. an offender may be looked at and assume they are being spoken about, leading to a violent response.
69
minimalisation
an attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence. eg. burglars may describe themselves as 'doing a job' or 'providing for their family' as a way of minimalising the seriousness of the crime.
70
evaluation of the cognitive explanations
+ Kennedy and Grubin (1992) for minimalisation
+ Emma Palmer and Clive Hollin (1998) for Kohlberg
+ Schonenberg and Aiste (2014) for hostile attribution bias
+ practical applications to treating criminal behaviour (especially cognitive distortions), CBT
- although cognitive theories don't adequately explain causality or reoffending so aren't helpful
- Thornton and Reid's 1992 study demonstrates significant differences in moral reasoning depending on the crime committed (Kohlberg)
71
Kennedy and Grubin (1992) - support for minimalisation
- found that sex offender's accounts of their crimes often downplayed the incident, for example by suggesting that the victim's behaviour contributed in some way to the crime. Some also denied that the crime happened.
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Palmer and Hollin (1998) - support for Kohlberg's theory
- compared moral reasoning between 210 female non-offenders, 122 male non-offenders, and 126 convicted offenders using the SM-SF (Socio-Moral Reflection Measure-Short Form)
- the SM-SF contains 11 moral dilemma-related questions such as not taking things that belong to others
- The offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offender group, consistent with Kohlberg's predictions.
73
Schonenberg and Aiste (2014) - support for hostile attribution bias
- showed emotionally ambiguous faces to 55 violent offenders and compared responses with a control group
- faces showed angry, happy, and fearful emotions
- offenders interpreted any image that had some expression of anger as an expression of aggression
- this misinterpretation of non-verbal cues could explain aggression in some individuals.
74
Thornton and Reid (1992)
- found that individuals committing financially motivated crimes, such as robbery, often displayed self-interested, preconventional moral reasoning with a focus on avoiding punishment.
- vs those involved in impulsive crimes, like assault, typically exhibited less evident moral reasoning
- level of moral reasoning seemed to be influenced by the perceived likelihood of escaping legal consequences.
75
differential association theory
- effectively a social learning theory of crime
- proposes that individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for crime through association with different people
- Sutherland therefore believed that individuals could be 'socialised' into a life of crime such as by parents, siblings, peers, etc.
76
what causes people to go on to offend according to the differential association theory?
- when socialised into a group, we will be exposed to values and attitudes towards the law, some will be pro-crime others will be against
- Sutherland argues that if the amount of pro-criminal attitudes the person comes to acquire outweighs the anti-crime attitudes, they will go on to offend.
77
Sutherland's claim of predictability
Sutherland said that we can 'mathematically predict' how likely an individual is to commit crime, if we have the knowledge of the frequency, intensity, and duration of which they have been exposed to this behaviour.
> neglects other individual differences and factors
78
Summary of how the differential association theory works
- crimes are learned through both direct/indirect operant conditioning and observational learning
- a child may be directly reinforced through praise for deviant behaviours or punished for such behaviour
- if role models engage in criminal activity and are successful, this would provide indirect, vicarious reinforcement
- the individual might also learn specific techniques for committing crimes
- observational learning is particularly prominent with re-offenders in prison as they may learn new techniques from other, more experienced criminals
79
evaluation of the differential association theory
+ changed people's views about the origins of criminal behaviour, Sutherland's theory allows for intervention and change to help people
- Sutherland's claim that it would be possible to predict individuals who will commit crime neglects other factors/differences between individuals that may be an influence eg. the CDH13 gene
- not everyone exposed to crime will become a criminal, there is a danger of stereotyping individuals who come from crime-ridden backgrounds as being 'unavoidably criminal' and could even be used to remove blame from individuals who commit crime
- may not account for all crime, best explains 'smaller crimes' rather than violent ones like rape or murder however 'smaller crimes' do account for the majority (eg. 400 000 burglaries in 2014 vs 500 homicides)
80
the psychodynamic explanation for criminality
These are based on Freud's work but are not his directly.
1. inadequate superego
2. maternal deprivation
81
inadequate superego theory
- Blackburn (1993)
- superego is the morality principle, concerned with right and wrong
- superego is formed towards the end of the phallic stage when children resolve the Oedipus/Electra complex (3-5 yrs)
- the complexes are successfully resolved when the child begins to identify with their same-sex parent, Freud believed that male identification was stronger due to more fear (castration anxiety)
- Blackburn argued that if the superego is deficient/inadequate then the id is given "free rein" and criminal behaviour is inevitable
- there are three types of inadequate superego
82
three types of inadequate superego
1. deviant
2. weak
3. over-harsh
83
Deviant superego
- when an individual identifies with a deviant or immoral role model, it can result in the internalisation of deviant attitudes
- eg. Kuklinski who killed 5 people in the 1980s, later claiming hundreds more for the mafia. His superego may have played a role in his chilling criminal activities (which involved body dismemberment and freezing) since he witnessed and endured domestic abuse from his father
84
weak superego
- when the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, a child may struggle to develop a strong superego through identification, this makes the individual more prone to criminal behaviour and more likely to act on unchecked id impulses
- eg. Bundy who confessed to 30 murders in the 1970s, he was raised by his mother and grandparents without knowing his real father which may have contributed to his crimes
85
over-harsh superego
- when a child strongly identifies with a strict parent, it can result in heightened guilt or anxiety when acting on id impulses.
- In order an attempt to appease the superego's need for punishment, individuals may engage in criminal acts, hoping to get caught. The punishment then provides relief by alleviating their guilt
- eg. Kemper, a serial killer from the 1970s, who murdered 10 people, including his mother who was highly critical when raising him
86
maternal deprivation theory of criminality
- Bowlby argued that prolonged mother-child separations, particularly before age 2.5 (but risk continued up to 5) and without a substitute caregiver, may result in long-term emotional consequences
- linked separation to affectionless psychopathy.
- Bowlby noticed that delinquent thieves, with a history of early and frequent separation, exhibited signs of affectionless psychopathy (lack of normal relationships, shame, or responsibility). This trait allowed them to be effective thieves, lacking concern for others.
87
Bowlby's 44 thieves study (1944)
- compared 44 thieves from his clinic with 44 control patients
- of the thieves, 14 exhibited affectionless psychopathy and 12 had experienced long separations
- in contrast, only 2 individuals from the control group had experienced long separations and none had committed crime
> arguably only demonstrates an association between separation and emotional problems, other variables may have caused these problems rather than the separation
88
evaluation of the psychodynamic explanation
- gender bias: according to the psychodynamic theory, females have weaker superegos, this should mean that there are more female offenders but evidence does not support this
- contradictory evidence, there is little evidence that children raised without a same-sex parent are less law abiding
+ practical applications, Bowlby found that delinquency could be prevented through avoiding early separations, providing alternative emotional care if separations are essential may lessen delinquency too
> prejudice/discrimination against same-sex/single sex families - doesn't match to todays society
- unconscious concepts - unfalsifiable, not easy to test scientifically
89
what is a custodial sentence?
a length of imprisonment, it is decided by a court of law after a guilty verdict
90
what are the aims of prison?
rehabilitation, retribution, deterrence, incapacitation
91
what is rehabilitation?
Prisons should focus on comprehensive offender rehabilitation, offering skill development, education, and necessary therapy or treatment eg. for drug addiction. These programs aim to facilitate reflection on their crimes, fostering personal growth for successful reintegration into society.
92
what is deterrence?
The prison experience is intentionally unpleasant and designed to deter individuals from reengaging in criminal behaviour. Deterrence operates on two levels:
1. general deterrence - sends a broad message to the public that crime is unacceptable and not tolerated
2. individual deterrence - aims to prevent individuals from repeating the same crime
93
what is retribution?
Justice is served for the crime when society, the family, or the victim perceives the offender as suffering. The idea that prisoners should "pay" for their actions is based on the Biblical notion of "an eye for an eye". Imprisonment, consequently, deprives them of freedom, aligning with the belief that it is a necessary and proportional response to wrong doing.
94
what is incapacitation?
Incapacitation involves removing the offender from society to prevent further offenses and safeguard the public. Eg. a person convicted of a violent assault may be imprisoned to prevent them from posing a physical threat to others in society. The necessity for incapacitation is determined by the severity of the offense committed.
95
tendency to reoffend
recidivism
96
evaluation of custodial sentencing
+ may provide opportunities for training and treatment, increases likelihood of finding employment upon release therefore reducing reoffending rates
- "universities of crime" eg. Sutherland suggested that offending is increased when associating with people who have pro-criminal attitudes, therefore might make reoffending more likely
- there may be better alternatives such as community service, restorative justice, fines, electronic monitoring, etc. which can allow for family contacts/employment to be maintained - custodial sentencing is not effective for everyone
- punishment isn't given immediately so is less effective, for around 50% of the prison population, punishment does not work (criminals may see the sentence as punishment for being caught not for the offence due to the delay)
97
what is recidivism
- reoffending following judicial punishment, committing the same or another crime again
98
why might offenders reoffend?
1. institutionalisation
2. behaviourist principles are delayed
3. mental health or addiction issues
99
institutionalisation as an explanation for recidivism
- used to being in prison, their day is organised for them
- basic needs are met (food, shelter)
- sense of belonging
100
behaviourist principles as an explanation for recidivism
- punishment isn't given immediately - no association made between crime and punishment
101
mental health and addiction issues as an explanation for recidivism
- related to the crime
- if the problem isn't treated in prison, it leaves the individual vulnerable to reoffend
102
feelings of offenders about recidivism - Marlott and Fromader (2010)
Marlott and Fromader (2010) conducted a survey with 102 Australian male offenders asking them about how they felt about release from prison and what they felt would reduce the likelihood of recidivism, they found that offenders felt unsupported upon release and that a greater level of accessible resources, treatment, and support would help reduce recidivism.
103
drug abuse and recidivism - Cartier et al. (2006)
Cartier et al (2006) researched the link between drug abuse and recidivism rates, they found a clear relationship between substance abuse and reoffending rates (although not for violent offenses).
104
mental health and recidivism - Coid et al (2017)
Coid et al (2017) found the mental health of prisoners has a direct effect on recidivism rates, offenders who received treatment for their mental health problems whilst in prison were 60% less likely to offend than untreated inmates
105
evaluation of recidivism
- prisons as "universities of crime", consistent with Sutherland's theory of pro-criminal attitudes, undermines the rehabilitation aim of prisons
- punishment not given immediately, may be seen as punishment for being caught rather than for the action itself
- individual differences in recidivism, Walker et al found the length of sentence made little difference to habitual offenders, equally, younger people and those who commit theft/burglary are more likely to reoffend
- self-report nature of evidence which could be problematic, especially since studies have found that offenders often have an external locus of control
- recidivism may be due to the outside environment rather than prisons, little support for mental health or poverty
- even if deterrence/rehabilitation is not successful, prisons are still useful to protect society/to enact retribution
106
what are the psychological effects of custodial sentencing?
- institutionalisation
- deindividuation
- overcrowding/lack of privacy
- effects on family
- prisonisation
- mental health
107
what is institutionalisation? (effect of custodial sentencing)
- prisoners get so used to the routine of being in prison and their day being organised
- they may become so accustomed that they struggle to function outside of prison
108
what is deindividuation? (effect of custodial sentencing)
- loss of identity may lead to deindividuation
- associated with increased aggression rates and treating others in inhumane ways
109
what is overcrowding/lack of privacy as an effect of custodial sentencing?
- the growing prison population in the UK has not been matched by an increase in the number of prisons
- 25% of prisoners are in overcrowded accommodation with usually two people in a one-person cell
- can lead to aggression, stress, and hypersexuality
110
what are the effects on the family of prisoners (effects of custodial sentencing)?
- children with a mother or father in prison are deeply affected financially and psychologically
- parents in prison may feel guilt and separation anxiety as a result of the separation from their family
111
what is prisonisation (effects of custodial sentencing)?
- prisoners are "socialised" into adopting an "inmate-code" whilst in prison, they must adapt to fit in
- this inmate code is unacceptable outside of prison but would be encourage and rewarded within the prison setting by other inmates
- it can make adjusting to outside society very difficult
- eg. keeping up your image and "get or be got"
112
what are the mental health effects of custodial sentencing?
- depression is prevalent among offenders due to helplessness (lack of control) and hopelessness (about their future)
- it may be expressed in terms of self-harm (an attempt to gain control or as a result of inmate culture)
- suicide is also an outcome of depression and is much higher in prison, especially within the first 24 hours of being in prison
113
evaluation of the effects of custodial sentencing
+ Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) demonstrated the negative effects on mental health
> experimental, low ecological validity
> real-life prisons do have similar effects
+ research supports the mental health decline eg. a study by the prison reform trust (2014) 25% of women and 15% of men reported psychosis symptoms
- difficult to establish cause and effect, eg. we cannot be sure that the prison environment is the cause of the mental health issues
> we still shouldn't be dismissive of the possibility that prison could be causing such issues
- some may argue that prison has to be purposefully unpleasant as a deterrent for future crimes
> Norwegian system suggests the opposite
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token economy
- the exchange of goods (economy) based on tokens (something neutral)
- based on operant conditioning
- often used in a closed society eg. prison where rewards can be easily manipulated
- exchanged for actual rewards an individual wants (secondary reinforcers exchanged for primary reinforces)
- target behaviours must be clearly specified as well as the reward that will be given
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target economy research - Hobbs and Holt (1976)
- aimed to reduce inappropriate social behaviour among adolescent delinquents at a residential school
- staff were trained
- 125 delinquent males across four cottages were observed, one of which serving as a control group, baseline data was also collected
- two supervisors tracked categories eg. following cottage rules and obeying instructions
- boys were informed of target criteria and potential token earnings
- rewards included sweets, cigarettes, and off-campus activities such as visiting home
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results for target economy research by Hobbs and Holt
Baseline mean percentages for social behaviours increased:
66% > 91%
47% > 81%
73% > 94%
average increase = 27%
There was no increase in the control group.
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