Forensic Psychology Flashcards
(138 cards)
1
Q
!! OFFENDER PROFILING !!
A
top down
bottom up
2
Q
what are the 2 types of offender profiling
A
top down approach
bottom up approach
3
Q
what is the top down approach described as
A
a qualitative approach to offender profiling due to looking at the overall picture and using typologies
4
Q
what is the top down approach based on
A
based police experience and case studies rather than psychological theory
in-depth interviews by the FBI with 36 sexually motivated serial killers
5
Q
what type of crime was the top down approach suitable for
A
suitable for more extreme/unusual crimes
E.G. murder, rape and ritualistic crime
6
Q
what are the two types of offenders identified in the top down approach
A
organised
disorganised
7
Q
behaviour towards victim (ORGANISED)
A
victim targeted
controls conversation
8
Q
behaviour towards victim (DISORGANISED)
A
victim detected at random
crime unplanned
avoids conversation
9
Q
crime scene detail (ORGANISED)
A
weapon absent
body hidden from view
body moved from crime scene
attempts to clean up
10
Q
crime scene detail (DISORGANISED)
A
weapon present
sexual activity after death
body left in view at crime scene
11
Q
characteristics of criminal (ORGANISED)
A
high intelligence
socially competent
sexually competent
skilled occupation
12
Q
characteristics of criminal (DISORGANISED)
A
average intelligence or lower
socially immature
sexually incompetent
poor work history
lives alone
lives close to crime scene
13
Q
FIRST stage of top down approach
A
DATA ASSIMILATION
data compiled from police reports, post porters, crime scene photos ect.
14
Q
SECOND stage of top down approach
A
CRIME CLASSIFICATION
profilers decide whether the crime scene is organised or disorganised
15
Q
THIRD stage of top down approach
A
CRIME RECONSTRUCTION
hypotheses about crime sequence, offender & victim behaviour etc.
16
Q
FOURTH stage of top down profiling
A
PROFILE GENERATION
offender’s physical, demographic and behavioural
17
Q
evaluation of top down approach
A
simplistic
particular crimes
issues with sample
lack of evidence
18
Q
simplistic (TOP DOWN APPROACH)
A
having only 2 categories is very simplistic as it is unlikely that criminals fit neatly into one category
as a result it would be difficult to predict their characteristics
it is likely that there will be more than two types
19
Q
particular crimes (TOP DOWN APPROACH)
A
is only useful for crime scenes that reveal information about a suspect e.g. rape
it is not useful for crimes that reveal little about the offender e.g. burglary
20
Q
issues with sample (TOP DOWN APPROACH)
A
the sample of 36 killers is too small and unrepresentative for a whole profiling system to be based on
self report methods were also used
could be unreliable as they are conducted by criminals
21
Q
lack of evidence (TOP DOWN APPROACH)
A
Canter et al. (2004) analysed 100 murders
found that there was no evidence for the existence of a disorganised type
HOWEVER.. there was some evidence for an organised type
22
Q
what it the bottom up approach based upon
A
investigative psychology
geographical profiling
23
Q
investigative psychology
A
uses computer databases and statistical procedures
looks at similarities and differences in patterns between offences and offenders
24
Q
interpersonal coherence (investigative psychology)
A
the way in which an offender behaves at the scene
how they interact with the victim may indicate how they act in everyday life
25
significance of time and place (investigative psychology)
may indicate where the offender is living if the crimes take place within the same forensic "centre of gravity"
26
forensic awareness (investigative psychology)
focuses on those who have been the focus of police attention before
their behaviour may denote how mindful they are of covering their tracks
27
geographical profiling
Rossmo (1997) stated that an offenders operational base is revealed by the geographical location of their previous crimes
known as crime mapping
28
circle theory (geographical profiling)
Canter and Larkin (1993) proposed two models of offender behaviour
the offending pattern with most likely form a circle around their home and give investigators an idea of their 'mental maps', mode of transport etc.
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the marauder (geographical profiling)
the offender operates in close proximity to their home base
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the commuters (geographical profiling)
the offender is likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence
31
evaluation of bottom up approach
other factors
supporting evidence
comparison to top down
mixed results
32
other factors (BOTTOM UP APPROACH)
there are other factors that need to be taken into account E.G. psychological characteristics
only focussing on location may cause an investigator to miss important information if used by its own
33
supporting evidence (BOTTOM UP APPROACH)
Lundrigan and Canter (2001) examined 120 murder cases involving serial killers
analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of offenders
the effect was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances
34
comparison to top down (BOTTOM UP APPROACH)
bottom up can be used for a variety of crimes
has a wider application for use compared to top down approach
more scientific and objective through its use of evidence
now used in suspect interviews and in court trials
35
mixed results (BOTTOM UP APPROACH)
Copson (1995) surveyed 48 police forces and found that advice provide by the profiler was USEFUL in 83% of cases
only dead to accurate identification of the offender was only 3% accurate
36
!! BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS !!
atavistic form
genetic explanations
neural explanations
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who founded the atavistic form
Lombroso
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what did Lombroso suggest
criminals were genetic throwbacks to a primitive sub-species who were biologically different to non-criminals
saw them as savage, untamed and lacking in evolutionary development
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Lombroso's research
examined 383 dead criminals' skulls and 3839 living criminals
concluded that 40% of crimes could be explained by atavistic form
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what physical characteristics did Lombroso associate with murders
bloodshot eyes
curly hair
long ears
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what physical characteristics did Lombroso associate with sexual deviants
glinting eyes
swollen fleshy lips
projecting ears
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what physical characteristics did Lombroso associate with fraudsters
thin lips
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evaluation of atavistic form
father of modern criminology
racism
causation
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father of modern criminology (ATAVISTIC FORM)
Lombroso was the first to use a scientific method in classifying criminals
was seen to be the start of modern offender profiling
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racism (ATAVISTIC FORM)
most of the characteristics described are most commonly found amongst those of African descent
he would therefore be criticised for using a eugenic and scientifically racist theory
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causation (ATAVISTIC FORM)
poverty or poor nutrition could influence facial and cranial differences rather than delayed evolutionary development
we cannot be sure of the cause of these differences and subsequent criminal activity
47
genetic explanations
candidate genes
twin studies
48
candidate genes
Tiihonen et al (2014) revelled two abnormalities that can be associated with violent crime
MAOA gene - controls dopamine and serotonin
CDH13 - linked to substance abuse
individuals with this combination were 13 times MORE LIKELY to have a history of violent behaviour
49
twin studies
Lange (1930) studies 13 MZ twins and 17 DZ twins where one of twins had spent time in prison
10 of the MZ and 2 DZ twins had a second twin who had also spent time in prison
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neural explanations
prefrontal cortex
mirror neurons
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prefrontal cortex
those who experience antisocial personality disorder show reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex - part of the brain that regulates emotional behaviour
Raine (2000) found 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in PFC of people with ADP compared to control groups
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mirror neurons
Keysers (2011) found that only when criminals were asked to empathise did their empathy reactions activate
suggests that criminals do experience empathy, it is just not an automatic response
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evaluation of genetic and neural explanations
diathesis stress model
determinism
validity
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diathesis stress model (GENETIC AND NEURAL EXPLANATIONS)
Mednick (1984) studies 14,427 Danish adoptees
found that a percentage of adoptees who had criminal convictions was highest if they had both adoptive and biological adoptive parents with convictions
suggests BOTH genetic and environmental causes are important
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determinism (GENETIC AND NEURAL EXPLANATIONS)
biological explanation had implications for the legal system
negotiates free will and gives a defence to those who claim to have a 'criminal gene'
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validity (GENETIC AND NEURAL EXPLANATIONS)
early twin studies are often unreliable
whether twins were MZ or DZ was based on appearance rather than DNA testing
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PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS
Eysenck
cognitive explanations
differential association theory
psychodynamic explanations
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Eysenck's theory
biological basis for personality
criminal personality
extraversion
neuroticism
psychoticism
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biological basis for personality
according to Eysenck out personality traits are determined by our nervous systems
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extraverts
UNDERachieve nervous system
constantly seek excitement
likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours
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neurotic individuals
OVERactive nervous system
more anxious, touchy and a largely unstable personality
behaviour is difficult to predict
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criminal personality
made up of high scores on extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism
Eysenck said criminal behaviour is developmentally immature, selfish and concerned with immediate gratification
children are usually taught delayed gratification through socialisation but criminals may not have learnt this
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evaluation of Eysenck's theory
Farrington et al
reductionist
culture bias
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Farrington et al, 1982 (EYESENCK'S THEORY)
reviewed studies and found criminals scored highly on psychoticism but NOT extraversion and neuroticism
EEGs show little difference for cortical arousal between extraverts and introverts
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reductionist (EYESENCK'S THEORY)
assigning criminals to a particular personality type is too simple
recent theories suggest that personality has further dimensions such as openness
E.G. Digman's Five Factor Model
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culture bias (EYESENCK'S THEORY)
Bartol & Holanchock (1979) found that Hispanic and African-American offenders scored LOWER in extraversion than a control group
suggests Eysenck's theory lacks generalisability to other cultures
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cognitive explanations
preconventional morality (level 1)
conventional morality (level 2)
post conventional morality (level 3)
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preconventional morality
stage 1 - punishment orientation
rules are obeyed to AVOID punishment
stage 2 - instrumental orientation
rules are obeyed for PERSONAL GAIN
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conventional morality
stage 3 - 'good boy' or 'good girl' orientation
rules are obeyed for APPROVAL
stage 4 - maintenance of social order
rules are obeyed to MAINTAIN social order
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post conventional morality
stage 5 - morality of contact and individual rights
rules are obeyed if they DON'T INFRINGE THE RIGHTS OF OTHERS, otherwise they are challenged
stage 6 - morality of conscience
rules are established by the INDIVIDUAL according to their own set of ethical principles
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level of moral reasoning
criminals have a lower level of moral reasoning
do not process from the pre-conventional level of moral reasoning
seek to avoid punishment and gain rewards = child-like reasoning
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cognitive distortions
hostile attribution bias
minimalisation
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hostile attribution bias
some violent offenders will misinterpret the actions of others as aggressive or confrontational when they are not
Schononberg and Justye (2014) presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions
when compared with control group, offenders were MORE likely to perceive the images as angry/hostile
74
minimalisation
offenders with downplay the seriousness of their offences
usually found in sexual offenders
Barbaree (1991) 26 convicted rapists
54% denied they had committed the offence
40% minimised the harm they had caused the victim
75
evaluation of cognitive explanations
culture bias
individual differences
real world application
76
culture bias (COGNITIVE EXPLANATIONS)
Gibbs (1979) claimed that the post-conventional stage should be abandoned as it contains a western cultural bias
proposed two levels of moral reasoning (mature and immature)
similar to Piaget's theory which suggests criminal moral reasoning is self-centred and ego-centric
77
individual differences (COGNITIVE EXPLANATIONS)
Langdon et al (2010) believed that intelligence might be a better predictor of criminality
pre-conventional associated with robbery
impulsive crimes E.G. assault are not associated with any type of reasoning
level of moral reasoning may depend of the KIND of offence committed
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real world application (COGNITIVE EXPLANATIONS)
used in treating offenders such as anger management
encourages offenders to acknowledge their crimes and change their distorted views
reduction in minimisation bias from therapy has been correlated with a reduced risk of reoffending
79
!! PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION !!
differential association theory
psychodynamic
80
what is the differential association theory
when individuals learn criminal behaviour through interactions with others
learn values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviours through observation and imitation
81
what are the two parts of the differential association theory
learned attitudes towards crime
learning criminal acts
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learned attitudes towards crime
if the number of pro-criminal attitudes a person acquires outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes they will go on to offend
83
learning criminal acts
criminals may learn how to carry out crimes
helps to explain reoffending
inmates are able to learn specific techniques from others
84
evaluation of differential association theory
deterministic
generalisability
Mednick adoption study
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deterministic (DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY)
many people who have criminal experiences do NOT go on to commit crimes
the theory does not takes into account individual differences
could cause stereotyping of people based on their family history
86
generalisability (DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY)
cannot be applied to different types of criminal E.G. working class criminals
explains why some crimes are more common amongst each class E.G. burglary in working class - as they share common normal and values
87
Mednick adoption study
Mednick (1984) studies 14,427 Danish adoptees
found that a percentage of adoptees who had criminal convictions was highest if they had both adoptive and biological adoptive parents with convictions
suggests BOTH genetic and environmental causes are important
88
what are the two parts of psychodynamic explanations
inadequate superego
maternal deprivation theory
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inadequate superego
based on Freud's theories
the superego punishes the ego with feelings of guilt and rewards it with feelings of pride
in criminals the superego is weak of deficient
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what are the 3 types of inadequate superego
weak superego
deviant superego
over-harsh superego
91
weak superego
caused by an absent same sex parent in the phallic stage
the child cannot identify and internalise a superego
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deviant superego
caused by the internalisation of an immoral superego from deviant parents
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over-harsh superego
causes the person to become anxious and guilty by nature
causes them to unconsciously seek punishment and do so by committing criminal acts
94
maternal deprivation theory
Bowlby proposed that the relationship we have with our mother acts as a prototype for all future relationships
if disrupted it can result in 'affectionless psychopathy'
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what is affectionless psychopathy
where it is difficult to show empathy or have feelings for others
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what did Bowlby find in his 44 thieves study
14 of them showed affectionless psychopathy
12/14 had prolonged separation from mothers
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evaluation of psychodynamic explanations
falsifiability
correlations
methodological issues
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falsifiability (PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATIONS)
lack falsifiability as we cannot empirical test abstract concepts such as the superego
it is a 'pseudoscientific' theory
not useful in understanding criminal behaviour
99
correlations (PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATIONS)
correlational research such as Bowlby's does not determine causation
if those with a deviant parent go on to offend themselves
could be due to genetics rather than a deviant superego
100
methodological issues (PSYCHODYNAMIC EXPLANATIONS)
Bowlby has been accused to influencing the responses of his ppts
demonstrates researcher bias
he failed to distinguish between privation and deprivation
privation seems to have more damaging effects than deprivation
101
!! DEALING WITH OFFENDING BEHAVIOUR !!
custodial sentencing
behaviour modification
anger management
restorative justice
102
what is recidivism
the tendency to reoffend after release from prison
Norway has a much lower rate than the UK as they adopt a more open prison style focussed on rehabilitation
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four aims of custodial sentencing
deterrence
incapacitation
retribution
rehabilitation
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deterrence
to put people off from offending
to deter criminals from committing offences again (conditioning)
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incapacitation
offenders are incarcerated to protect the public
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retribution
prison is used as a form of punishment where the sentence matches the severity of the crime
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rehabilitation
prison helps to re-educate, as well as offer treatments to criminals (E.G. drug treatments) in order for them to reintegrate back into society
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what are the three psychological effects of custodial sentencing
stress and depression
institutionalisation
prisonisation
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stress and depression
prisoners are more likely to self-harm/commit suicide in prison than the general population
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institutionalisation
offenders struggle to adapt back to the outside world as they have become used to the norms and values of a prison environment
111
prisonisation
prisoners adopt an 'inmate code'
normally seen to be unacceptable behaviours in societies but are rewarded inside prison
112
evaluation of custodial sentencing
research support
individual differences
universities of crime
113
research support (CUSTODIAL SENTENCING)
the Prison Reform Trust (2014)
25% of females
15% of men
reported symptoms of psychosis
suggests that prison is not helpful in rehabilitating these offenders
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individual differences (CUSTODIAL SENTENCING)
not all offenders will react to prison in the same way
they have different sentences, criminal backgrounds and psychological difficulties
means it is difficult to make generalisations about how prisons affect prisoners
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universities of crime (CUSTODIAL SENTENCING)
prison can act as a tool for educating and sharing skills for younger inmates
more experienced offenders share their techniques
prevents rehabilitation of younger prisoners
116
behaviour modification
based on the principles of operant conditioning
uses a TOKEN ECONOMY SYSTEM to reinforce desirable behaviours
117
how does the token economy system work
a token is given when a prisoner performs a desirable behaviour
can later be exchanged for a reward
the token is a secondary reinforcer as they are valued by the prisoner are valued by the prisoner due to their association with the reward
118
steps to changing behaviour
1. desirable behaviour identified
2. broken down in steps
3. baseline measure established
4. all much follow the regime
5. could be one particular prisoner
6. overseen by prison officials
119
evaluation of behaviour modification
outside value
individual differences
ethical issues
120
outside value (BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION)
Cohen and Filipczack (1971) found that after 2 years token economy groups were LESS likely to reoffend than control groups
after 3 years rates of recidivism reflected national statistics
most likely because the prisoners were no longer receiving 'rewards' for their desirable behaviour
121
individual differences (BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION)
Field (2004) found that some young offenders respond more POSITIVELY when rewards were more immediate
tailoring programmes on an individual basis would be difficult to implement due to staffing issues in prisons
122
ethical issues (BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION)
offenders are not always given the option as to whether they WANT TO TAKE PART
withdrawal of rewards could also be seen as ethically questionable
123
what is anger management
a form of cognitive behaviour therapy
offenders are taught to recognise their triggers and apply cognitive techniques that deal with the situation in a non aggressive manner
124
stages of anger management
1. cognitive preparation
2. skill acquisition
3. application practice
125
cognitive preparation
the offender reflects on their past experiences of anger and triggers
therapist will identify and responses that are irrational and will redefine these as non-threatening to the individual
126
skill acquisition
offenders are taught skills to use when dealing with situations that usually cause anger
E.G.
cognitive = positive self-talk
behavioural = assertiveness training
physiological = meditation
127
application practice
therapist and offender act out scenarios that would normally cause the criminal to become angry
gives the criminals a chance to practice a new skills
therapist uses positive reinforcement to reward the new behavioural response
128
evaluation of anger management
long term effectiveness
comparison
expensive
129
long term effectiveness (ANGER MANAGEMENT)
Blackburn (1993) states there is little evidence that anger management reduces recidivism in the long term
probably due to the role playing now involving all possible triggers we can find in a real life scenario
130
comparison (ANGER MANAGEMENT)
anger management seeks to tackle the actual causes of offending unlike behaviour modification
should be more effective in lowering recidivism
131
expensive (ANGER MANAGEMENT)
requires highly trained and experienced specialists who are expensive to employ
prisons are usually underfunded and may not have the resources to access these professionals
offenders need motivation and commitment to take part
132
what is restorative justice
used as a form of rehabilitation for the offender and as a process of healing for the victims
can be used as an alternative to prisons or in addition to community service
133
examples of restorative justice
face to face with the victim
making a financial payment to the victim
repairing damaged property
134
possible features of face to face restorative justice
offender accepting responsibility and acknowledging the consequences of their actions
an opportunity to explain the impact of their crime (impact statements)
a chance for victims to ask questions
active rather than passive involvement of both parties
135
evaluation of restorative justice
remorse
flexible
soft punishment
136
remorse (RESTORATIVE JUSTICE)
is it possible the offender only signs up as a way of reducing their sentence or to avoid prison
do not show genuine remorse
the victim may also only be interested in seeking revenge rather than closure
137
flexible (RESTORATIVE JUSTICE)
can be used in a flexible manner online custodian sentencing
able to adapt to suit the needs of each individual situation
makes it difficult to draw conclusions about its effectiveness
138
soft punishment (RESTORATIVE JUSTICE)
many members of the public see RJ as a soft option for dealing with offenders
politicians are not keen to promote its use in fear of using public support who prefer criminals to fact retribution for their crimes
