Forensic psychology

Question 1

Offender profiling

Answer 1

A behavioural analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unknown offenders.

Question 2

The top-down approach

Answer 2

Profilers start with a pre-established typology and work down to lower levels in order to assign offenders to one of 2 categories based on witness accounts and evidence from the crime scene.

Question 3

organised offender

Answer 3

An offender who shows evidence of planning, targets a specific victim and tends to be socially and sexually competent with higher-than-average intelligence.

Question 4

Disorganised offender

Answer 4

An offender who shows little evidence of planning, leaves clues and tends to be socially and sexually incompetent with lower-than-average intelligence.

Question 5

The top-down approach to profiling originated in the US as a result of work carried out by the FBI in the 1970s.

Answer 5

The FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit drew upon data gathered from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated murderers including Ted Bundy and Charles Manson.
- They concluded that the data could be categorised into organised and disorganised crimes/murders.
- Each category had certain characteristics which meant that if the data from a crime scene matched some of the characteristics of one category, we could predict other characteristics that would be likely. This could then be used etc find the offender.

Question 6

Organised offenders show evidence of having planned the crime in advance.

Answer 6

• The victim is deliberately targeted and this suggests that the killer or rapist has a ‘type’ of victim they seek out.
• The offender maintains a high degree of control during the crime and may operate with almost detached surgical precision.
• There is little evidence or clues left behind at the scene.
• They tend to be above-average intelligence, in a skilled professional occupation and are socially and sexually competent.

Question 7

Disorganised offenders show little evidence of planning, suggesting that their offences may be spontaneous, spur of the moment acts.

Answer 7

• The crime scene tends to reflect the impulsive nature of the attack - the body is usually still at the scene and there appears to have been little control on the part of the offender.
• They tend to have a lower-than-average IQ, be un unskilled work or unemployed, and often have a history of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships.
• They tend to live alone and often relatively close to where the offence took place.

Question 8

Constructing and FBI profile - there are 4 main stages:

Answer 8

1. Data assimilation - profiler reviews the evidence
2. Crime scene classification - as either organised or disorganised.
3. Crime reconstruction - hypotheses in terms of sequence of events, behaviour of the victim, etc.
4. Profile generation - hypotheses related to the likely offender, e.g. of demographic background, physical characteristics, behaviour etc.

Question 9

One strength of the top-down approach is that there is support for a distinct organised category of offender.

Answer 9

Canter et al. (2004) conducted an analysis of 100 US murders each committed by a different serial killer. Smallest space analysis was used -identifies correlations across different samples of behaviour.
- The analysis was used to assess the co-occurrence of 39 aspects of serial killings (including whether there was torture or restraint, attempt to conceal body, and weapon).
- This analysis revealed that there’s a subset of features of many serial killings which matched the FBI’s typology for organised offenders.
-> FBI typology approach has some validity.

Question 10

Another strength of top-down profiling is that it can be adapted to other kinds of crime, such as burglary.

Answer 10

Critics of top-down profiling have claimed that the techniques only applies to a limited number of crimes, such as sexually-motivated murder. However, Meketa (2017) reports that top-down profiling has recently been applied to burglary, leading to and 85% rise in solved cases in 3 US states. The detection methods retains the organised-disorganised distinction but also adds 2 new categories: interpersonal and opportunistic.

Question 11

One limitation of top-down profiling is the evidence on which it is based.

Answer 11

FBI profiling was developed using interviews with 36 murderers in the US - 25 of which were serial killers, the other 11 being single or double murderers. At the end of the process, 24 of these individuals were classified as organised offenders and 12 were disorganised. Canter et al. have argues that the sample was poor - FBI agents didn’t select a random or even a large sample nor did the sample include different kinds of offender. There was no standard set of questions so each interview was different and therefore not really comparable.
- Suggests top-down profiling doesn’t have a sound, scientific basis.

Question 12

The bottom-up approach

Answer 12

Profilers work up from evidence collected from the crime scene to develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics, motivations and social background of the offender.

Question 13

Investigative psychology

Answer 13

A form of bottom-up profiling that matches details from the crime scene with statistical analysis of typical offender behaviour patterns based on psychological theory.

Question 14

Geographical profiling

Answer 14

A form of bottom-up profiling based on the principle of spatial consistency - that an offender’s operational base and possible future offences are revealed by the geographical location of their previous crimes.

Question 15

One strength for investigative psychology is that evidence supports its use.

Answer 15

Canter and Heritage (1990) conducted an analysis of 66 sexual assault cases. The data was examined using smallest space analysis. Several behaviours were identified as common in different samples of behaviour, e.g. use of impersonal language and lack of reaction to the victim. Each individual displayed a characteristics pattern of such behaviours and this can help establish whether 2 or more offences were committed by the same person.
- supports one of the basic principle of investigative psychology (& bottom up approach) that people are consistent in their behaviour.

Question 16

Another strength is evidence to support geographical profiling.

Answer 16

Lundrigan and Canter (2001) collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the US. Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in behaviour of killers. The location of each body disposal site created a ‘centre of gravity’ presumably because when offenders start from their home base they may go in a different direction each time they dispose of a body, but in the end all these different sites create a circular effect around the home base. The effect was more noticeable for offenders who traveled short distances (marauders).
- supports view that geographical information can be used to identify an offender.

Question 17

One limitation is that geographical profiling may not be sufficient on its own.

Answer 17

The success of geographical profiling may be reliant on the quality of data that the police can provide. Recording a crime is not always accurate, can vary between police forces and an estimated 75% of crimes aren’t even reported to police in the first place.
- Questions the utility of an approach that relies on the accuracy of geographical data. Even if the info is correct, critics claim other factors are just as important in creating a profile, e.g. timing and age and experience of offender.
- suggests that geographical info may not always lead to successful capture of an offender.

Question 18

Atavistic form

Answer 18

A biological approach to offending that attributes criminal activity to the fact that offenders are genetic throwbacks or a primitive subspecies ill-suited to conforming to the rules of modern society. Such individuals are distinguishable by particular facial and cranial characteristics.

Question 19

!876 - Lombroso wrote a book called ‘the criminal man’ in which he suggested that criminals are ‘genetic throwbacks’ -

Answer 19

a primitive subspecies who were biologically different from non-criminals.
- Today, Lombroso’s theory of atavistic form would best be described as speculative and naive.

Question 20

Offenders were seen by Lombroso as lacking evolutionary development, their savage and untamed nature meant that…

Answer 20

they would find it impossible to adjust to the demands of civilised society and inevitably turn to crime.
- Lombroso saw offending behaviour as a natural tendency, rooted in genes of those who engage in it.

Question 21

In terms of cranial (skull) characteristics, the atavistic form included…

Answer 21

narrow, sloping brow, a strong permanent jaw, high cheekbones and facial asymmetry.
- Other physical markers included dark skin and the existence of extra toes, nipples or fingers.

Question 22

Besides physical traits, Lombroso suggested there were other aspects of the born offender including…

Answer 22

insensitivity to paint, use of slang, tattoos and unemployment.

Question 23

Lombroso went on to categorise particular types of offender in terms of physical and facial characteristics; Murders and sexual deviants.

Answer 23

Murderers - bloodshot eyes, curly hair and long ears
Sexual deviants - glinting eyes, swollen, fleshy lips and projecting ears

Question 24

One strength of Lombroso’s work is it changed the face of the study of crime.

Answer 24

He has been names the ‘father of modern criminology’. He also shifted the emphasis in crime research away from a moralistic discourse towards a more scientific position (evolutionary influences and genetics where individuals aren’t to blame).
- Influenced offender profiling as he was trying to describe how particular types of people are likely commit particular types of crime.

Question 25

However, many critics, e.g. DeLisi (2012) have questioned whether Lombroso's legacy is entirely positive.

Answer 25

Attention has been drawn to the racist undertones within Lombroso's work. Many of the features that Lombroso identified as atavistic (curly hair, dark skin) are most likely to be found among people of African descent. He was basically suggesting that Africans were more likely to be offenders, a view that fitted 19th century eugenic attitudes. - suggests that some aspects of this theory were highly subjective, influenced by racial prejudices of the time.

Question 26

One limitation is evidence contradicts the link between atavism and crime.

Answer 26

Goring (1913) set out to establish whether there was anything physically atypical about offenders. After conducting a comparison between 3000 offenders and 3000 non-offenders he concluded that there was no evidence that offenders are a distinct group with unusual characteristics. - Challenged idea that offenders can be physically distinguished from rest of population and unlikely to be a subspecies.

Question 27

Genetics

Answer 27

genes consist of DNA strands. DNA produces 'instructions' for general physical features of an organism and also specific physical features. These may impact on psychological features (e.g. intelligence and mental disorder). Genes are transmitted from parents to offspring.

Question 28

Neural explanation

Answer 28

Any explanation of behaviour in terms of (dys)functions of the brain and nervous system. This includes the activity of brain structures such as prefrontal cortex, and neurotransmitters such as serotonin.

Question 29

Genetic explanations for crime suggest that...

Answer 29

would-be offenders inherit a gene, or combination of genes, that predispose them to commit crime.

Question 30

The importance of genes is illustrated by twin studies.

Answer 30

Christiansen (1977) studies over 3500 twin pairs in Denmark, and found concordance rates for offender behaviour of 35% for MZ males and 13% for DZ males. - Offender behaviour was checked against Denmark police records. This data indicates that it is not just the behaviour that might be inherited but the underlying predisposing traits.

Question 31

Candidate genes - A genetic analysis of almost 800 Finnish offenders by Tiihonen et al. (2015) suggested that 2 genes (MAOA & CDH13) may be associated with violent crime.

Answer 31

MAOA gene regulates serotonin in the brain and has been linked to aggressive behaviour and the CDH13 gene has been linked to substance abuse and ADHD. The analysis found that about 5-10% of all severe violent crime in Finland is attributable to MAOA and CDH13 genotypes.

Question 32

Diathesis-stress model

Answer 32

If genetics do have influence on offending, it seems likely that this is at least partly moderated by effects of environment. - A tendency towards offending behaviour may come about through the combination of genetic predisposition and biological or psychological trigger.

Question 33

Evidence suggests there may be neural differences in the brain of offenders and non offenders.

Answer 33

Most evidence in this area has involved individuals diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder. APD is associated with reduced emotional responses, a lack of empathy for the feelings of others and is a condition that characteristics many convicted offenders.

Question 34

Adrian Rain conducted many studies of APD brain, reporting that there are many brain-imaging studies demonstrating that...

Answer 34

individuals with APD have reduced activity in prefrontal cortex (regulates emotional behaviour).

Question 35

A limitation with using twin studies as genetic evidence is the assumption of equal environments.

Answer 35

It's assumed by researchers studying twins that environmental factors are held constant because twins are brought up together and experience similar environments. However 'shared environment' assumption may apply more to MZ than DZ as MZ are identical and people tend to treat them more similarly, affecting their behaviour. - higher concordance rates for MZ may simply be because they're treated more similarly than DZ.

Question 36

One strength is support for diathesis-stress model of offending.

Answer 36

A study of 13,000 Danish adoptees was conducted by Mednick et al. (1984). When neither bio nor adoptive parents had convictions, % of adoptees that did was 13.5%. This figure rose to 20% when either of bio parents had convictions, and 24.5% when both adoptive and bio had convictions. - shows that genetic inheritance plays an important role in offending but environmental influence is clearly also important, providing support for diathesis-stress model of crime.

Question 37

One strength of neural explanation is support for link between crime and frontal lobe.

Answer 37

Kandel and Freed (1989) reviewed evidence of frontal lobe damage and antisocial behaviour. People with damage tended to show impulsive behaviour, emotional instability and an inability to learn from their mistakes. The frontal lobe is associated with planning behaviour. - This supports the idea that brain damage may be a causal factor in offending behaviour.

Question 38

One limitation is the link between neural differences and APD may be complex.

Answer 38

Other factors may contribute to APD, and ultimately to offending. Farrington et al. (2006) studied a group of men who scored high on APD. They had experienced various risk factors during childhood, e.g. being raised by convicted parent and being physically neglected. It could be that these early childhood experiences caused APD and also some the neural differences associated with it - e.g. reduced activity in frontal lobe due to trauma. - This suggests that the relationship between neural differences, APD and offending is complex and there may be other intervening variables that have an impact.

Question 39

The crime personality

Answer 39

A feature of Eysenck's theory of crime, and individual who scores highly on measures of extraversion, neuroticism and psychotics an can't easily be conditioned, is cold and unfeeling, and is likely to engage in offending behaviour.

Question 40

Eysenck was an important figure in personality and intelligence research during the middle of 20th century. 1947 - proposed that behaviour could be represented along 2 dimensions;

Answer 40

introversion-extraversion and neuroticism-stability. The 2 dimensions combine to form a variety of personality characteristics or traits. - Eysenck later added psychotics-sociability.

Question 41

Extraverts

Answer 41

- underachieve nervous system = constantly seek excitement, stimulation and likely to engage in risk-taking behaviour. - tend not to condition easily and not learn from mistakes.

Question 42

Neurotic

Answer 42

- high level of reactivity in sympathetic nervous system = respond quickly to situations of threat -> nervous, jumpy and overanxious. - behaviour difficult to predict.

Question 43

Psychotic

Answer 43

- high levels of testosterone - unemotional, prone to aggression

Question 44

In Eysenck's theory, personality is linked to offending behaviour via socialisation processes.

Answer 44

Eysenck saw offending behaviour as developmentally immature in that it is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification -> offenders are impatient. - The process of socialisation is one in which children are taught to become more able to delay gratification and more socially oriented. - Eysenck believed that people with high E and N scores had nervous systems that made them difficult to condition = less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses and be more likely to act antisocially in situations where opportunity presented itself.

Question 45

Measuring the criminal personality

Answer 45

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). - the measurement of personality was very important part of his theory because it enabled him to conduct research relating personality variables to other behaviours, such as criminality.

Question 46

One strength of Eysenck's theory is there is evidence to support the criminal personality.

Answer 46

Eysenck & Eysenck (1977) compared 2070 prisoners' scores on EPQ with 2422 controls. On measures of extraversion, neurotic and psychotics - across all age groups that were sampled - prisoners recorded higher average scores than controls. - Agrees with predictions of theory that offenders rate higher than average across 3 dimensions he identified.

Question 47

However, Farrington et al. (1982) conducted a meta-analysis of relevant studies and reported that offenders tended to score high on measures of psychotics, nut not extraversion and neuroticism.

Answer 47

There is also inconsistent evidence of differences on EEG measure between extraverts and introvert which casts doubt on the physiological basis of Eysenck's theory. - This means some of the central assumptions of the criminal personalty have been challenged.

Question 48

One limitation is that cultural factors aren't taken into account.

Answer 48

The criminal personality may vary according to culture. Bartol and Holanchock (1979) studied Hispanic and African-American offenders in a max security prison in NY. The researchers divided these offenders into 6 groups based on their offending history and the nature of their offences. It was found that all 6 groups were less extravert than a non-offender control group whereas Eysenck would expect them to be more extravert. - Bartol and Holanchock suggested that this was because the samples was a very different cultural group from that investigated by Eysenck. - this questions how far the criminal personality can be generalised and suggests it may be a culturally relative concept.

Question 49

level of moral reasoning

Answer 49

Refers to the way a person thinks about right and wrong. It's presumed that such thinking then applies to moral behaviour. The higher the level the more the behaviour is driven by a sense of what it right and the less it is driven by just avoiding punishment or avoiding disapproval of others

Question 50

Cognitive distortions

Answer 50

Faulty, biased and irrational ways of thinking than mean we perceive ourselves, other people and the world inaccurately and usually negatively.

Question 51

Hostile attribution bias

Answer 51

The tendency to judge ambiguous situations, or the actions of others, as aggressive and/or threatening when in reality they may not be.

Question 52

Minimalisation

Answer 52

A type of deception that involves downplaying the significance of an event of emotion. A common strategy when dealing with feelings of guilt.

Question 53

Moral development - Kohlberg (1968) proposed peoples' decisions on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral reasoning.

Answer 53

The higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning. - Kohlberg based his theory on peoples' responses to a series of moral dilemmas, e.g. Heinz dilemma.

Question 54

Link with criminality

Answer 54

Offenders are more likely to be classified at pre-conventional level of Kohlberg's model, whereas non-offenders have vernally progressed to conventional level and beyond. - Pre-conventional level is characterised by a need to avoid punishment and gain rewards, and is associated with less mature, childlike reasoning.

Question 55

One strength is evidence for the link between level of moral reasoning and crime.

Answer 55

Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning in 332 non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders using the SRM-SF which contains 11 moral dilemma-related questions. The offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than non-offender group.

Question 56

One limitation is that level of moral reasoning may depend on the offence.

Answer 56

Thornton and Reid (1982) found that people who committed crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes. Pre-conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crimes in which offenders believe they have a good chance of evading punishment. - may not apply to all forms of crime.

Question 57

One strength of cognitive distortions is its application to therapy.

Answer 57

CBT aims to challenge irrational thinking. Offenders are encouraged to 'face up' to what they have down and establish less distorted view of their actions. Studies suggest that reduced incidence of denial and minimisation in therapy is highly associated with reduced risk of reoffending. - practical value.

Question 58

One limitation is the level of cognitive distortion depends on the type of offence.

Answer 58

Howitt and Sheldon (2007) gathered questionnaire responses from sexual offenders. Contrary to what they predicted, they found that non-contact sex offenders used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders. Those who had a previous history of offending were also more likely to use distortions as a justification. - suggests that distortions aren't used in the same way by all offenders.

Question 59

Differential association theory

Answer 59

An explanation for offending which proposes that, through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour.

Question 60

Offending as a learned behaviour. Offending behaviour may be acquired in the same way as any other behaviour through the processes of learning.

Answer 60

This learning occurs most often through interactions with significant others who the child values most and spends most time with, such as the family and peer group.

Question 61

Differential association suggests that it should be possible to mathematically predict how likely it is that an individual will commit offences. To do this we need to know...

Answer 61

the frequency, intensity and duration of exposure to deviant and non-deviant norms and values.

Question 62

Offending arises from 2 factors:

Answer 62

learned attitudes towards offending and the learning of specific offending acts/techniques.

Question 63

Learned attitudes

Answer 63

When a person is socialised into a group they will be exposed to values and attitudes towards the law. Some of these values will be pro-crime, so will be anti-crime. Sutherland argues that if the number of pro-criminal attitudes the person comes to acquire outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes, they will go on to offend.

Question 64

Learning techniques

Answer 64

The would-be offenders also learns particular techniques for committing offences. These might include how to break into someone's house through a locked window etc.

Question 65

Sutherlands theory accounts for why so many convicts released from prison go on to reoffend.

Answer 65

It's reasonable to assume that whilst inside prison inmates learn specific techniques of offending from other more experienced offenders.

Question 66

one strength of differential association theory is at the time it was published it changed the focus of offending explanations

Answer 66

Sutherland was successful in moving the emphasis away from early biological accounts of offending (Lombroso) as well as away from theories that explained offending as being product of individual weakness or immorality. It draws attention to the fact that deviant social circumstances and environment may be more to blame for offending than deviant people. - Offers a more realistic solution to the problem of offending instead of eugenics or punishment.

Question 67

However, differential association runs the risk of stereotyping individuals who come from impoverished, crime ridden backgrounds 'unavoidably offenders'

Answer 67

- even though Sutherland took great care to point out that offending should be considered on an individual case-by-case basis. - However the theory tends to suggest that exposure to pro crime values is sufficient to produce offending in those who are exposed to it. - ignores the fact that people may choose not to offend despite such influences, as not everyone who is exposed to pro-crime attitudes goes on to offend.

Question 68

One limitation is it is difficult to test the predictions of differential association.

Answer 68

Sutherland aimed to proceed a scientific, mathematical framework within which future offending behaviour could be predicted = predictions must be testable. The problem is that many of the concepts aren't testable because they can't be operationalised. The theory is built on the assumption that offending behaviour will occur when pro-crime values outnumber anti-crime values. Without being able to measure these, we can't know at what point the urge to offend is realised and offending career triggered. - no scientific credibility.

Question 69

Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 69

A perspective that describes the different forces (dynamics), most of which are unconscious, that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience.

Question 70

Superego

Answer 70

- formed at the end of the phallic stage of development. - works on morality principle and exerts its influence by punishing Ego through guilt for wrongdoing, whilst rewarding it with pride for good moral behaviour.

Question 71

Blackburn (1993) argued that if the superego is deficient then...

Answer 71

offending behaviour is inevitable because the Id is given 'free rein' and not properly controlled.

Question 72

3 types of inadequate superego have been proposed:

Answer 72

Weak superego, deviant superego, over-harsh superego

Question 73

Weak superego

Answer 73

If the same gender parent is absent during phallic stage, a child can't internalise a fully formed superego (no identification). This would make more immoral or offending behaviour more likely.

Question 74

Deviant superego

Answer 74

if the Superego that a child internalises has immoral or deviant values this would lead to offending behaviour. E.g. a boy who is raised by criminal father is not likely to associated guilt with wrong doing.

Question 75

Over-harsh superego

Answer 75

an overly harsh parenting style leads to a child with an over-harsh superego who is crippled by guilt and anxiety. This may (unconsciously) drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superego's overwhelming need for punishment.

Question 76

The role of emotion

Answer 76

The effect of an inadequate superego is to allow primitive, emotional demands to become uppermost in guiding moral behaviour.

Question 77

One strength of the psychodynamic approach is research support for the link between offending and the superego.

Answer 77

Goreta (1991) conducted a Freudian-style analysis of 10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment. In all those assessed, disturbances in superego formation are diagnosed. Each offender experienced unconscious feelings of guilt and the need for self-punishment. Goreta explained this as a consequence of an over-harsh superego.

Question 78

One limitation of Freudian theory is that it is gender biased

Answer 78

An implicit assumption with Freud's theory is that girls develop a weaker superego than boys because identification with same gender parent is not as strong. (don't experience castration anxiety = less pressure to identify with mothers). Their superego is less fully realised to Freud = women should be more prone to offending than men, but rates of imprisonment show the opposite. - ALPHA BIAS = not appropriate explanation of offending behaviour.

Question 79

Custodial sentencing

Answer 79

A decision made by a court that punishment for a crime should involve time being in -custody' - prison or in some other closed therapeutic and/or educational institution.

Question 80

Recidivism

Answer 80

Reoffending, a tendency to relapse into a previous condition or mode of behaviour. A convicted offender who reoffends, usually repeatedly.

Question 81

Aims of custodial sentencing:

Answer 81

1. Deterrence 2. Incapacitation 3. Retribution 4. Rehabilitation

Question 82

Deterrence

Answer 82

Unpleasant prison experience designed to put off individual from engaging in offending behaviour.

Question 83

Incapacitation

Answer 83

Offender taken out of society to prevent them reoffending to protect public. Depends on severity of offence and nature of offender.

Question 84

Retribution

Answer 84

Society is enacting revenge for the offence by making the offender suffer, proportionate to seriousness of offence. 'eye for an eye'.

Question 85

Rehabilitation

Answer 85

main objective of prison is to reform, not punish. Offenders should leave better adjusted and ready to take place back in society.

Question 86

Psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Answer 86

- Stress and depression - Institutionalisation - Prisonisation

Question 87

One limitation of custodial sentencing is the negative psychological effect on prisoners.

Answer 87

Bartol (1995) suggested that imprisonment can be brutal, demeaning According to ministry of justice, 119 people killed themselves in prisons in England and Wales in 2016. Average suicide of one every 3 days - x9 higher than general population. - 25% of women and 15% men reported symptoms of psychosis.

Question 88

One strength of custodial sentencing is it provides opportunity for training and treatment.

Answer 88

One objective is rehabilitation - offenders may become better people during time in prison, and improved character means that can lead to a crime-free life when back in society. Shirley (2019) claimed that offenders who take part in college education programmes are 43% less likely to reoffend. - may be worthwhile experience assuming offenders can access these programmes.

Question 89

Another limitation of custodial sentencing is offenders may learn to become better offenders.

Answer 89

Incarceration with long-term offenders may give younger inmates the opportunity to learn 'tricks of the trade' from more experienced prisoners. Offenders may acquire criminal contacts whilst in prison that they may follow up when released.

Question 90

Behaviour modification

Answer 90

An application of the behaviourist approach of treatment. Based on principles of operant conditioning. Aim is to replace undesirable behaviours with more desirable ones through selective use of positive and/or negative reinforcement.

Question 91

Token economy

Answer 91

Based on operant conditioning. Prisoners are given a token each time they perform a desirable behaviour. tokens aren't rewarding in themselves but derive their value from their association with a reward and are secondary reinforcers. Tokens might be exchanged for a phone call, time in the gym, extra cigarettes etc.

Question 92

Operationalise target behaviours

Answer 92

by breaking it down into component parts. - Target behaviour ay be improved interaction with other inmates -> not touching another prison as you pass them, speaking politely etc. These 'units' of behaviour should be objective and measurable, agreed with prison staff in inmates in advance.

Question 93

Train staff to...

Answer 93

standardise the procedures so all prison staff are rewarding the same behaviours in same way.

Question 94

One strength of behaviour modification is evidence to support it.

Answer 94

Hobbs and Holt (1976) introduces token economy programme with groups of young offenders across 3 behavioural units. They observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared to non-token economy group.

Question 95

However, success of token economies depend on a consistent approach from prison staff.

Answer 95

Basset and Blanchard (1977) found any benefits were lost if staff applied techniques inconsistently. This was due to factors such as lack of appropriate staff training or high staff turnover. - Behaviour modification schemes must ensure full and consistent staff participation if they are to work.

Question 96

One limitation of behaviour modification is that it may not affect long-term behaviour.

Answer 96

Behaviour modification has 'little rehabilitative value' and any positive changes in behaviour that may occur whilst in prison may quickly be lost when released. More cognitive based treatments e.g. anger management may be more likely to lead to permanent behavioural change. - Offenders can also easily play along with token economy to access rewards, producing little change in character. - may explain why once token economy is discontinued, an offender may regress back to former behaviour.

Question 97

Anger management

Answer 97

A therapeutic programme that involves identifying the signs that trigger anger as well as learning techniques to calm down and deal with the situation in a sportive way. Aim is to recognise and manage anger.

Question 98

3 stages of anger management

Answer 98

Cognitive preparation, Skills acquisition, Application practice.

Question 99

Cognitive preparation

Answer 99

Offender reflects on past experience and considers typical pattern of anger. Offender learns to identify those situations which act as triggers to anger and therapist rationalises it.

Question 100

Skills acquisition

Answer 100

Introduced to range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger-provoking situations more rationally and effectively. Cognitive, behavioural and physiological techniques.

Question 101

Application practice

Answer 101

Given the opportunity to practise skills in controlled environment. Such role play involves offender and therapist re-enacting scenarios that have escalated anger in past.

Question 102

One strength of anger management is that the benefits outlast those of behaviour modification

Answer 102

It tackles one of the causes of offending = cognitive processes that trigger anger and therefore offending behaviour. Experience of anger management may give offenders new insight into cause of criminality and allow them to self-discover ways of managing themselves outside of prison setting.

Question 103

One limitation of anger management is that success may depend on individual factors.

Answer 103

Howells et al. (2005) conducted investigation with Australian offenders - found that participation in anger management had little overall impact when compared to control group who received no treatment. However, not true for all offenders in treatment programme -> significant progress was made with offenders who had showed intense anger levels before. Offenders who were open to change and motivated experienced similar gains. - only benefits those who fit a certain profile.

Question 104

Another limitation is that anger management is expensive.

Answer 104

Because they require the services of highly trained specialists who are used to dealing with violent offenders. Many prisons don't have the resources to fund programmes. - Success is based on commitment of those who ppt, which may be a problem if prisoners are uncooperative and apathetic. Change takes time = add to expense.

Question 105

Restorative justice

Answer 105

A system with dealing with offending behaviour which focuses on rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with victims (survivors). This enables an offender to see impact of crime and serves to empower survivors by giving them a 'voice'.

Question 106

Restorative justice seeks to focus on 2 things:

Answer 106

The victim of the crime and their recovery, and the offender and their recovery/rehabilitation process.

Question 107

Key features of the programme

Answer 107

- Trained mediator - Face-to-face or remotely via video link - Survivor given opportunity to confront offender and explain how it affected them. - active involvement - focus on positive outcomes for both

Question 108

A strength is that restorative justice does seem to lead to a decrease in rates of reoffending (recidivism)

Answer 108

A meta-analysis of 10 studies by Strang (2013) compared offenders who experienced custodial sentencing. The restorative justice group was significantly less likely to reoffend. This reduction was larger in offenders convicted of violent crime than crimes against property. - Positive impact on reoffending.

Question 109

One limitation of restorative justice is that offenders may abuse the system.

Answer 109

The success of restorative justice programmes may hinge on an offender's intentions being honourable. However, Gijseghem (2003) suggests that offenders may use it to avoid punishment, play down faults or take pride in relationship with survivor using direct contact. - would explain why not all offenders benefit from restorative justice and reoffend.