Forensics

Question 1

What is the top down approach?

Answer 1

Profilers start with a pre-established typology and work down in order to assign offenders to one of two categories based on with was accounts and evidence from the crime scene.

Question 2

Where did the top down approach originate?

Answer 2

The approach originated in America from the FBI’s Behavioural Science Unit which used data from in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated killers including Ted Bundy and Charles Manson.

Question 3

Why was the top down approach developed?

Answer 3

It was first developed as a way of trying to solve some of the most bizarre and extreme murder cases and designed to produce a profile of the most likely offender.

Question 4

What is an organised offender?

Answer 4

One who showed evidence of planning, targets the victim and tends to be socially and sexually competent with higher-than-average intelligence.

Question 5

What is a disorganised offender?

Answer 5

One who shows little evidence if planning, leaves clues and tends to be socially and sexually incompetent with a lower-than-average intelligence.

Question 6

The stages of conducting an FBI Profile

Answer 6

Stage 1: Data Assimilation
Stage 2: Crime Scene Classification
Stage 3: Crime Reconstruction
Stage 4: Profile Generation

Question 7

Stage 1: Data Assimilation

Answer 7

The profiler reviews the evidence. This includes crime scene photography’s and sketches; background information about the victim including employment, habits, relationships; details of the crime including the weapon and pathology reports.

Question 8

Stage 2: Crime Scene Classification

Answer 8

Based on the data collected, the crime is classified as ‘organised’ or ‘disorganised’. This distinction presumes that there is a correspondence between offenders and offences.

Question 9

Stage 3: Crime Reconstruction

Answer 9

Hypotheses in terms of sequence of events cents, behaviour of the victim etc. are created.

Question 10

Stage 4: Profile Generation

Answer 10

Hypotheses related to the likely offender e.g. demographic background, physical characteristics, behaviour, habits, beliefs etc. are constructed. This description is used to work out a strategy for the investigation to help catch the offender.

Question 11

What is the bottom up approach?

Answer 11

Profilers work up from evidence collected from the crime scene to develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics, motivations and social background of the offender.

Question 12

What is investigative psychology?

Answer 12

Investigative psychology matches details from the crime scene with statistical analysis of typical offender behaviour patterns based on psychological theory.

Question 13

What does investigative psychology aim to do ?

Answer 13

It aims to establish patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur across crime scenes. This helps to develop a statistical database which then acts as a baseline for comparison.

Question 14

What are the main features of Investigative psychology?

Answer 14

Interpersonal coherence - the way and offender behaves at the scene
Time and place - this may indicate where the offender is working or living
Forensic awareness - certain behaviours may reveal awareness of police techniques

Question 15

What is Geographical Profiling?

Answer 15

Geographical profiling is based on the principle of spatial consistency - that people commit crimes within a limited geographical space. This means inferences about an offender’s operational base.

Question 16

What is Canter’s circle theory?

Answer 16

The pattern of offending forms a circle around the offender’s ‘home’ base. The distribution of offences leads to psychologist describing the offender as either ‘The marauder’ or ‘The commuter’

Question 17

What are the marauder and the commuter?

Answer 17

The marauder - who operates near their home base.
The commuter - who is likely to have traveled a distance away from their usual residence.

Question 18

Compare the top-down and bottom-up approach for profiling

Answer 18

Question 19

Define Atavistic form

Answer 19

A biological approach to offending that attributes criminal activity to the fact that offenders are generic throwbacks or a primitive subspecies ill-suited to conforming to the rules of Modern society. Such individuals are distinguishable by particular facial and cranial characteristics

Question 20

What did Lombroso do in his research?

Answer 20

Lombroso examined the facial and cranial features of 383 dead and 3839 living criminals. He concluded that 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic characteristics.

Question 21

What are atavistic characteristics?

Answer 21

A narrow, sloping brow; a strong prominent jaw; high cheekbones; facial asymmetry. Physical markers include dark skin and the existence of extra toes, nipples or fingers.

Question 22

Define concordance rate

Answer 22

A measure of similarity, usually expressed as a percentage, between two individuals or two sets of individuals on a given trait.

Question 23

Define epigenetics

Answer 23

This refers to the material in each cell of the body that acts like a set of ‘switches’ to turn genes on or off.

Question 24

What are twin studies in relation to genetic explanations of offending behaviour?

Answer 24

Lange investigate 13 monozygotic (MZ) and 17 dizygotic (DZ) twins where at least one of the twins in each pair had served time in prison. Lange found that 10 of the MZ twins, but only 2 of the DZ twins had a twin who was also in prison. Genetics factors then must play a predominant part in offending behaviour.

Question 25

What are candidate genes in relation to the biological explanation of offending behaviour?

Answer 25

Tiihonen et al. (2014) conducted a genetic analysis of 800 finnish offenders. Criminals are categorised into violent or non-violent. They found abnormalities which led to ‘lower activity’ on two genes that may be associated with violent crime. The MAOA gene is important for controlling the amount of dopamine and serotonin in the brain and has been linked to aggressive behaviour.

Question 26

What is the Diathesis stress model in relation to the genetic explanations of offending behaviour?

Answer 26

A tendency towards criminal behaviour may come through the combination of genetic predisposition and a biological or physiological trigger. For example being raised in a dysfunctional environment or having criminal role models.

Question 27

Define neural explanations in relation to explaining offender behaviour

Answer 27

A biological theory that sees abnormally functioning brain physiology and biochemistry as forming the basis to an individual’s criminal behaviour.

Question 28

What is antisocial personality disorder (APD)?

Answer 28

A mental health condition where a person has a repeated pattern of behaviour manipulating or violating the rights of the others. It often leads to crimes against people.

Question 29

What is Eysenck’s Theory of Criminal Personality?

Answer 29

Eysenck has created a general theory of criminality that predicts that criminals as a group will have significantly higher scores on the personality dimensions of psychoticism(E-N), extroversion-introversion, and neuroticism-stability.

Question 30

Define extraversion

Answer 30

According to Eysenck, this refers to outgoing people who enjoy risk and danger because their nervous systems are under aroused.

Question 31

Define Neurotisism

Answer 31

According to Eysenck, this refers to people with a negative outlook who get upset easily. Their lack of stability is die to an over reactive response to threat.

Question 32

Define psychotisism

Answer 32

According to Eysenck, this refers to an aggressive antisocial person who lacks empathy. This may be related to high levels of testosterone.

Question 33

What three dimensions did Eysenck proposed could be used to represent behaviour?

Answer 33

Introversion-Extraversion Neuroticism-Stable Psychoticism-Sociable

Question 34

According to Eysenck what is the criminal personality?

Answer 34

An individual who scores high on measures of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism and cannot be easily conditioned, is cold and unfeeling and is likely to engage in offending behaviour.

Question 35

What is socialisation?

Answer 35

This teaches children to become more able to delay gratification and become more socially oriented. In a ‘normal’ person wrongdoing is avoided because of previous punishment.

Question 36

Measuring the criminal personality

Answer 36

It is measured using the Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire (EPQ). Having about 100 items in a full version but only 48 in the shorter one.

Question 37

What are cognitive explanations of offending behaviour?

Answer 37

A psychological explanation that sees that offending may have a cognitive basis i.e., mental processes such as thoughts, perceptions and attention impact on behaviour.

Question 38

What are levels of moral reasoning?

Answer 38

Moral reasoning refers to the way a person thinks about right and wrong. It is presumed that such thinking then applies to moral behaviour. The higher the level, the more that behaviour is driven by a sense of what is right and less by avoiding punishment.

Question 39

What did kohlberg propose about moral development?

Answer 39

He proposed that people’s decisions and judgements on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a stage of theory of moral development. The stage theory states that as someone matured their moral reasoning becomes more sophisticated - the higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning.

Question 40

What are cognitive distortions?

Answer 40

Faulty, biased and irrational ways of thinking that mean individuals perceive themselves, other people and the world inaccurately and usually negatively.

Question 41

What are the two types of cognitive distortions?

Answer 41

Hostile Attribution Bias Minimilisation

Question 42

What is a hostile attribution bias?

Answer 42

It is the tendency to judge ambiguous (open to interpretation) situations, or actions of others as aggressive and/or threatening when they may not be. Offenders will often misread non aggressive situations.

Question 43

What is minimalisation?

Answer 43

This is a type of deception that involves downplaying the significance of an even or emotional and is a common strategy when dealing with guilt. For example, burglars may see themselves as ‘doing a job’ or ‘supporting their family’.

Question 44

What is differential association theory?

Answer 44

As and explanation of offending it proposes that through interaction with others individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour. Offending behaviour may be acquired in the same way as any other behaviour.

Question 45

According to differential association theory, what does offending arise from?

Answer 45

1.Learned attitudes towards offending 2.Learning of specific offending acts and techniques

Question 46

What are psychodynamic explanations for offending behaviour?

Answer 46

A psychological theory that sees criminal behaviour as formed from early childhood experiences which impacts later behaviour.

Question 47

What is the superego?

Answer 47

The irrational, moralistic part of personality that acts as one’s conscience.

Question 48

When does the superego develop and what occurs in this stage?

Answer 48

It develops at the end of the phallic stage around 3-6. During this time there is a resolution of the Oedipus or Electra complex.

Question 49

What is the oedipus complex?

Answer 49

Bogs develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and murderous hatred for their rival love (their father). Fearing castration boys repress their feelings and identify with their father taking on his gender role and moral values.

Question 50

What is custodial sentencing ?

Answer 50

A judicial sentence determined by a court, where the offender is punished by serving time in prison or in some other closed therapeutic and/ or educational institution such as a psychiatric hospital.

Question 51

What is recidivism ?

Answer 51

A convicted criminal who reoffends, usually repeatedly.

Question 52

Aims of custodial sentencing

Answer 52

Deterrence, Incapacitation, Retribution, Rehabilitation

Question 53

Psychological Effects of Custodial Sentencing

Answer 53

Stress and depression, Institutionalisation, Prisonisation

Question 54

Define maternal deprivation

Answer 54

The emotional and intellectual consequences of separation between a child and their mother, or mother substitute.

Question 55

Define Affectionless psychopathy

Answer 55

A behaviour disorder in which an individual has no ability to experience shame or guilt and lacks a social conscience. This means that they may find it ‘easier’ to commit crimes.

Question 56

Define behaviour modification

Answer 56

The general aim is to replace undesirable behaviours with more desirable ones through the selective use of positive and/or negative reinforcement.

Question 57

Define positive reinforcement

Answer 57

A stimulus that increases the probability that a behaviour will be repeated because it is pleasurable

Question 58

Define negative reinforcement

Answer 58

A stimulus that increases the probability that a behaviour will be repeated because it leads to avoidance of an unpleasant situation and is experienced as rewarding.

Question 59

Define punishment

Answer 59

A procedure that decreases the likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated because the overall experience is unpleasant

Question 60

What is anger management?

Answer 60

Anger management is a therapeutic programme that identifies the signs that trigger anger as well as learning ways to calm down and deal with the situation in a positive way.

Question 61

What is cognitive behaviour therapy? (CBT)

Answer 61

A combination of cognitive therapy,a way to change maladaptive thoughts, and behaviour therapy, a way to change behaviour in response to these thoughts and beliefs.

Question 62

What are restorative justice programmes?

Answer 62

A system for dealing with criminal behaviour which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with survivors. This empowers survivors by giving them a ‘voice’.

Question 63

What is offender profiling

Answer 63

A behavioural and analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unknown criminals .