Formal assessment (memory, psychopathology, research methods) Flashcards
(167 cards)
1
Q
Aim
A
The researcher’s area of interest- what they are looking at (e.g. to investigate helping behaviour)
2
Q
Bar chart
A
A graph that shows the data in the form of the categories (e.g. behavious observed) that the researcher wishes to observe
3
Q
Behavioural categories
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Key behaviours or, collections of behaviours, that the researcher conducting the observational will pay attention to an record
4
Q
Case study
A
In depth investigation of a single person, group or event, Where data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews)
5
Q
Closed questions
A
Questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g. yes/no. They generate quantitative data.
6
Q
Coding units
A
These are the categories researchers placed qualitative data into when conducting a content analysis.
7
Q
Co-variables
A
the variables investigated in a correlation.
8
Q
Confidentiality
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less agreed beforehand participants have the right to expect that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.
9
Q
confounding variable
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an extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV.
10
Q
content analysis
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Technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written group into categories - converting qualitative data into quantitative data
11
Q
control group
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a group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not expected to the experimental treatment (e.g. allowed to sleep normally)
12
Q
controlled observation
A
an observational study where the researchers control some variables - often takes place in a laboratory setting.
13
Q
correlational analysis
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a mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two Co variables are related
14
Q
counterbalancing
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a way of trying to control order effects in a repeated measures design, e.g. half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A
15
Q
covert observations
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also known as an undisclosed observation as the participants do not know their behaviour as being observed
16
Q
debreifing
A
after completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant. Aim of debriefing = to return the person to the state s/he was in before they took part
17
Q
deception
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involves misleading participants about the purpose of a study
18
Q
demand characteristics
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occur when participants try to make sense of the research situation they are in and try to guess the purpose of the research or try to present themselves in a good way
19
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dependent variable
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a variable that is measured to tell you the outcome of your study
20
Q
descriptive statistics
A
analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarise data in a meaningful way
21
Q
directional hypothesis
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one tailed hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. boys are more helpful than girls)
22
Q
double blind design
A
participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspect of the research design
23
Q
ecological validity
A
The extent to which the findings of a research study are available to the generalised to real life settings
24
Q
ethical guidelines
A
these are provided by the BPS - they are the ‘rules’ by which all psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research
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ethical issues
There are three main ethical issues that occur psychological research- deception, lack of informed consent and lack of protection of participants
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event sampling
a target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs
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experimental group
the group that received the experimental treatment (e.g. sleep deprivation)
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extraneous variable
variables that if not controlled may affect the DV and provide a false impression than IV has produced changes when it hasn't
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field experiment
an experiment that takes place in the natural setting went where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
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histogram
a graph that is used for continuous data (e.g. test scores). there should be no space between the bars, because the data is continuous
31
hypothesis
this is a formal statement or prediction of what the researcher expects to find. It needs to be testable
32
independent groups design
an experimental design where each participant only takes part in one condition of the IV
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independent variable
the variable that the experimenter manipulates (changes)
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informed consent
Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to fully understand all aspects of the research before they agree (give consent) to take part.
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internal validity
the extent to which the results are solely due to changes in the variable being manipulated
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interview
a self report technique that involves an experiment asking participants questions (generally on a 1 to one basis) and recording their responses
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investigator effects
these results from the effects of the researchers behaviour and characteristics on an investigation
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lab experiment
an experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
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matched pairs design
an experimental design where pairs are participants are matched on important characteristics and one member allocated to each condition of the IV
40
mean
measure of central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a set of data together and dividing by the total number of scores
41
measures of central tenancy
a measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies e.g. mean, median or mode
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measures of dispersion
a measurement of data that shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the range and the standard deviation
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median
measure of central tendency calculated by arranging scores in a set of data from lowest to highest and finding the middle score
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meta-analysis
a technique where rather than conducting new research with the participants, the researchers examined the results of several studies that have already been conducted
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mode
measure of central tendency which is the most frequently occuring issue in a set of data
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natural experiment
an experiment where the change in the IV already exists rather than being manipulated by the experimenter
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naturalistic observation
an observation study conducted in the environment whether behaviour would normally occur
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Negative correlation
A relationship that exists between two covariables whereas one increases, the other decreases
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non-directional hypothesis
A2 tailed hypothesis that does not predict the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. girls and boys are different in terms of helpfulness)
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nonparticipant observation
an observation where the researcher chooses not to play any part in what is being observed
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observer bias
occurs when the observers know the aims of the study or the hypothesis and allowed this knowledge to influence their observations
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open questions
questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any answer they like they generate qualitative data
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operationalising variables
This means clearly describing the variables (IV and DV) in terms of how they will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV)
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opportunity sample
a sampling technique where participants are chosen because they are easily available
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order effects
order effects can occur in a repeated measures design an refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practise effect or boredom affect on 2nd task
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overt observation
also known as a disclosed observation or the participants given their permission for the behaviour to be observed
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participant observation
an observation all study whether researcher actually joins the group or takes part in the situation they are observing
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pilot study
a small scale study conducted to ensure the method will work according to plan. If this doesn't then amendments can be made
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Population
refers to the large group of individuals that the researcher is interested in studying
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positive correlation
a relationship exists between two co-variables whereas one increases so does the other
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presumptive content
asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, if yes, then presume the sample would too
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primary data
information that the researcher has collected him/herself for a specific purpose e.g. data from an experiment or observation
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protection of participants
participants should be protected from physical or mental health, including stress - risk of harm must be no greater than that which they would have been exposed to in everyday in life
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qualitative data
descriptive information that is expressed in words
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quantitative data
information that can be measured and written down with numbers
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quasi experiment
an experiment often conducted in controlled conditions where the IV simply exists so there can be no random allocation to the conditions
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Questionnaire
a set of written questions that participants fill in themselves
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random allocation
this is how the experiment is divide participants into each experimental condition, to reduce any bias in the distribution of participant characteristics
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random sample
a sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected
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Range
a measure of dispersion which involves subtracting the lowest score from a higher score on a set of data
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reliability
Whether something is consistent. In the case of a study, where it is replicable
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Repeated measures
An experimental design where each participant takes part in both/all conditions of the IV
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representative sample
a sample that closely matches the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics
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retrospective consent
once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are not happy
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right to withdraw
participants should be aware that they can leave the study at anytime, even if they have been paid to take part
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Sample
a group of people that are drawn from the target population to take part in research investigation
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Scattergram
used to plot correlations where each part of values is plotted against each other to see if there's a relationship between them
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secondary data
information that someone else is collected e.g. the work of another psychologist or government statistics
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single blind design
participants are not told the true purpose of the research
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social desirability bias
participants behaviour is distorted as they modify this in order to be seen in a positive light
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standard deviation
a measure of the average spread of schools around the mean. The greater the standard deviation the more spread out the scores are
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standardised instructions
the instructions given to each participants are kept identical - to help prevent experimenter bias
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Standardisation
the process in which procedures used in research or cut the same. Great attention is taken to keep all elements of a procedure identical. Under these circumstances, changes in data can be attributed to the IV
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stratified sample
sampling technique where groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the target populations
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structured interview
interview whether questions are fixed and the interviewer reads them out and records the responses
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systematic sample
a sampling technique where every nth person in a list of the target population is selected
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target population
the group that the researcher draws the sample from Ann wants to be able to generalise the findings to
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temporal validity
refers to how likely it is at the time period where study was conducted has influenced the findings and whether they can be generalised to other periods in time
89
thematic analysis
A message for analysing the qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within the data
90
time sampling
a way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of fixed time intervals
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unstructured interview
the interviewer may have a list of topics or questions, but has extra flexibility to lead the conversation further, should participant responses lead to deeper/ more detailed discussion
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Validity
whether something measures what is set out to a measure
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volunteer sample
a sampling technique where participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering an advertisement
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Zero correlation
this means that there is no relationship between the Co variables and the correlation study
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ABC Model
Ellis's explanation for how irrational thoughts affect behaviour A= activating event, B+ beliefs, C= consequences Avoidance The act of staying away from something (e.g. the phobic object or situation)
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Basal Ganglia
Region of the brain involved in the coordination of movement that has been linked to OCD
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CBT
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy is a commonly used therapy which involves challenging and replacing irrational thoughts
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Cognitive Bias
Error in thinking caused by simplified information processing
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Compulsion
An irresistible urge to behave in a certain way
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COMT Gene
Gene which has a variation which results in higher levels of dopamine and this variation is more common in patients with OCD
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Counter Conditioning
Learning a new response to the phobic object/situation e.g. replacing fear with relaxation
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Cultural Relativism
The idea that cultural norms and values are culture specific and no-one culture is superior to another culture
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Deviation from Ideal Mental Health
Not meeting criteria which suggest you are mentally healthy
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Deviation from Social Norm
A behaviour that deviates from social norms is one that is very different from how we would expect people to behave
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Dopamine
Higher levels of this neurotransmitter have been associated with the compulsions shown by OCD patients
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DSM V
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition is the standard classification of mental disorders used in the United States.
107
Empirical Disputing
REBT technique where the therapist seeks evidence for a person's thoughts
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Failure to Function Adequately
When a person's behaviour means they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life
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Anxiety Hierarchy
A list of situations related to the phobic object/situation arranged in order from least to most frightening
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Flooding In-Vitro
Behavioural treatment for a phobia which involves imagined exposure to the phobic object/situation without being able to escape
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Logical Disputing
REBT Technique where the therapies disputes the logic of a person's thoughts
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Negative Self Schema
Negative information we hold about ourselves based on negative past experiences that can lead to cognitive biases
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Negative Triad
Three types of negative thinking (self, the world and the future) that Beck suggested occur automatically in people who are depressed
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Obsession
An idea or thought that continually preoccupies or intrudes on a person's mind.
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Orbitofrontal cortex
A region of the brain which converts sensory information into thoughts and actions- higher activity has been found here in OCD patients
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Overgeneralisation
Cognitive error where you make a sweeping conclusion from a single incident
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REBT
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy is a type of CBT based on Ellis's ABC model
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Selective attention
Focusing on one piece of information while ignoring other information viewed as irrelevant
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Serotonin
Neurotransmitter which regulates mood - lower levels are associated with OCD
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SERT Gene
Gene which affects the transport of serotonin, causing lower levels of serotonin which is associated with OCD
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Simple or specific phobia
Irrational fear of an object (e.g. spiders) or situation (e.g. flying)
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Social norm
The rules of behavior that are considered acceptable in a group or society
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SSRIs
Antidepressant drugs used to treat OCD which work by preventing the re-absorption and breakdown of serotonin
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Statistical infrequency
A behaviour that is statistically infrequent does not happen very often
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Systematic desensitisation
A behaviour therapy designed to gradually reduce a phobia through the principle of classical conditioning
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Two-process model
Behavioural explanation for phobias which suggests they are acquired through classical conditioning and maintained through operant conditioning
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Active processing
Is where the person transforms or manipulates the material that is to be remembered
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Anxiety
State of emotional arousal where there is a feeling or experience of apprehension and uncertainty
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Articulatory control process
Part of the phonological loop that repeats sounds or words to keep them in working memory until they are needed
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Capacity
The amount of information that can be held in memory
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Central executive
Part of working memory that coordinates other components
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Chunking
Method of increasing short-term memory by grouping information into larger units
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Coding
Changing the format of information for use in memory
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Cognitive interview
Interview technique devised to improve the accuracy of witness recall
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Context-dependent failure
Forgetting which occurs because the external cues at recall are different to those at the time of learning
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Cue-dependent forgetting
Method of increasing short-term memory by grouping information into larger units
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Duration
The length of time information remains in memory
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Episodic buffer
Part of working memory which is a temporary store integrating information from the other components
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Episodic memory
Type of long-term memory for information about specific experiences and events in our lives
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Eyewitness testimony
An account given by people of an event they have witnessed
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Forgetting
Failure to retrieve memories
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Inner scribe
Stores information about the physical relationship of items (part of the visuo-spatial sketchpad)
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Interference theory
Memory can be disrupted not only by previous learning but also by what is learned in the future
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Leading question
Question phrased in such a way that it prompts a particular kind of answer
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Long-term memory
Permanent store holding unlimited amounts of information for long periods
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Misleading information
Incorrect information given the an eyewitness after an event
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Multi-store model
Explanation of memory that sees information flowing through a series of storage systems
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Phonological loop
Part of working memory that deals with auditory information
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Phonological store
Part of the phonological loop which stores words heard
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Post-event discussion
A potential source of misleading information where witnesses discuss what they saw afterwards
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Proactive interference
A cause of forgetting by which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information
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Procedural memory
Long-term memory for "knowing how"
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Retrieval
The recall of stored memory
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Retrieval failure
Difficulties in recall that are due to the absence of the correct retrieval cues
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Retroactive interference
Occurs when newly learned information interferes with and impedes the recall of previously learned information
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Schema
A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information
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Semantic memory
Type of long-term memory for information about the world that is not linked to particular contexts or events
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Sensory register
Store of sensory information that lasts no more than a few seconds
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Short-term memory
Temporary memory store that holds limited amount of information for a short period of time
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State-dependent failure
Forgetting which occurs because the emotional or physical state at recall is different to that at the time of learning
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Visual cache
Part of the visuo-spatial sketchpad that stores information about form and colour
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Visuo-spatial sketchpad
Part of working memory that deals with visual information
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Working memory model
Model that suggests short-term memory is composed of three, limited capacity stores
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alternative hypothesis
a testable statement that makes predictions about ehat will happen in the experiment (iv will effect dv)
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directional hypothesis
specifies the direction in which the IV will effect the DV (previous research suggests direction)
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non directional hypothesis
where direction of the results is not predicted (no previous research or conclusive evidence)
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null hypothesis
no relationship between the two
