Foundations Of Language Theories Flashcards
(255 cards)
1
Q
What do behaviorist theories of language learning propose?
A
Humans learn language through a process of reinforcement.
2
Q
What is operant conditioning as defined by B.F. Skinner?
A
A change in behavior in response to feedback.
3
Q
How do children learn the rules and patterns of language according to behaviorist theory?
A
Through a back-and-forth inductive process involving stimulus and response.
4
Q
What is a major criticism of the behaviorist theory of language acquisition?
A
It completely excludes any theory of the mind.
5
Q
What challenge do critics present to behaviorist theories?
A
Explain how children produce novel utterances not acquired through imitation or reinforcement.
6
Q
Who developed the universal grammar theory?
A
Noam Chomsky.
7
Q
What does the universal grammar theory propose about humans and language?
A
Humans are born with innate language abilities.
8
Q
What is the ‘language activation device’?
A
A hypothetical region of the brain devoted to language acquisition and production.
9
Q
What key feature does the universal grammar theory help explain?
A
All languages share certain properties.
10
Q
What do children exposed to a common language do according to Chomsky?
A
Converge in their linguistic competence despite different inputs.
11
Q
What aspect of language acquisition do critics of innateness theories argue is undervalued?
A
Social and psychological aspects.
12
Q
Who is associated with the cognitive constructionist model of first-language acquisition?
A
Jean Piaget.
13
Q
What does the cognitive constructionist model suggest about language development?
A
It occurs in universal, identifiable stages.
14
Q
What drives cognitive and linguistic development according to Piaget?
A
Experiences that challenge current understanding.
15
Q
What do proponents of cognitive models point to regarding language learning?
A
It proceeds according to certain stages of complexity.
16
Q
What is a criticism of Piaget’s four-stage model?
A
The stages cannot be empirically identified.
17
Q
What influence do critics argue is undervalued in Piaget’s theory?
A
The influence of culture and social interaction.
18
Q
What is cognitive constructionism?
A
A theory suggesting that learners create representations of their world largely through their own inquiries and activities rather than social interaction.
19
Q
Who is the psychologist associated with social constructivism?
A
Lev Vygotsky
20
Q
What is the primary focus of social constructivism in language acquisition?
A
The importance of social interaction in language learning.
21
Q
What term did Vygotsky coin to explain how learning occurs?
A
Zone of proximal development
22
Q
What does the zone of proximal development refer to?
A
Tasks or challenges that a child can accomplish with the help of others but not alone.
23
Q
How does social constructivism view language development?
A
As developed in a specific context rather than according to universal structures.
24
Q
What criticism is often levied against social constructivism?
A
Not all cultures prioritize interaction between children and more experienced others, yet children in these cultures still become competent language users.
25
What is discovery learning theory?
The theory that students learn best by constructing their own knowledge through inquiry and problem-solving.
26
How does Bruner's view on children's learning stages differ from Piaget's?
Bruner believes the stages are continuous and can be accelerated, while Piaget sees them as distinct stages.
27
What does Bruner theorize about the role of language in cognitive development?
Language causes cognitive development rather than the reverse.
28
Who does Chomsky prioritize in language acquisition theories?
Innate cognitive potentials.
29
What does the critical period hypothesis state?
There is an optimal age for learning a language, and learning ease declines over time.
30
Who first formulated the critical period hypothesis?
Wilbur Penfield
31
What did Eric Lenneberg contribute to the critical period hypothesis?
He argued that language learning is dependent on brain plasticity, optimal during a critical period extending from roughly age two until puberty.
32
How has the critical period hypothesis been extended to L2 learning?
Claiming that adults rarely achieve full fluency in a second language learned later in life.
33
What is a common criticism of the critical period hypothesis?
Some adult learners fully master a second language.
34
What factors other than brain development could explain differences in L2 learning?
Motivational and social contexts.
35
What does the hypothesis regarding language learning posit?
The existence of certain biological potentials for and limitations to language learning
## Footnote
Shares orientation with Noam Chomsky and the universal grammar school of language acquisition.
36
What do connectionist theories of language acquisition attempt to apply?
Insights from neuroscience and computer science
## Footnote
They explain language acquisition through neuron function and learning mechanisms.
37
How do connectionist theories explain the establishment of neuron networks?
The more frequently a given set of neurons fires in tandem, the more established that neuron network becomes
## Footnote
This feature helps explain memory and word association.
38
What is the role of computer scientists in connectionist theories?
To build learning networks with silicon chips playing the role of simplified neurons
## Footnote
They simulate language-acquisition activities such as breaking auditory streams into words.
39
What type of learning do connectionist models primarily rely on?
Statistical, inferential learning
## Footnote
This contrasts with symbol and rule-based learning typically advanced by non-computational models.
40
What is the emergentist theory of language acquisition?
Children learn language using a simple but adaptable set of neural networks to process their linguistic environment
## Footnote
It emphasizes pattern extraction rather than innate universal grammar.
41
How does emergentist theory differ from innate theories like Chomsky's?
It does not suggest children are born with an expansive universal grammar hard-wired in the brain
## Footnote
Instead, it posits a pattern extraction ability.
42
What is a key aspect of the emergentist theory regarding social interaction?
Social interaction is critical for language development
## Footnote
It shares this idea with social constructionism.
43
What does the competition model of language acquisition argue?
There is no fundamental difference in how people acquire a first language or learn subsequent languages
## Footnote
Cognitive processes compete to interpret language cues from the environment.
44
What happens to cognitive processes that lead to successful interactions in language acquisition?
They are reinforced as neural networks get consolidated as permanent features of the brain
## Footnote
The competition model is a type of connectionist theory.
45
What does the competition model reject regarding language structures?
The idea of innate linguistic structures
## Footnote
It emphasizes the interaction of cognitive processes with the environment.
46
Fill in the blank: Connectionist theories emphasize the importance of _______ in explaining language acquisition.
[neuron function]
47
True or False: The emergentist theory suggests that children are born with a hard-wired universal grammar.
False
## Footnote
Emergentist theory emphasizes pattern extraction instead.
48
What is the least stressful language skill according to the text?
Listening
## Footnote
Listening is likely to engage and encourage early learners.
49
What methodology is a leading example of a comprehension-based approach to second-language learning?
Natural way methodology by Stephen Krashen and Tracy Terrell
## Footnote
This approach emphasizes meaningful speech and an early silent period.
50
What do communicative approaches to second-language learning focus on?
Genuine, meaningful, experience-based interactions in the target language
## Footnote
These approaches integrate reading, writing, speaking, and listening from the beginning.
51
How do constructivist theories view knowledge acquisition?
Learners construct knowledge through their own experiences
## Footnote
Constructivists engage students in reality-based participatory scenarios.
52
What is the grammar-translation method primarily based on?
Explanations in the students' native language of grammatical structures
## Footnote
This method challenges students to translate sentences from L2 to L1.
53
What is the focus of the audio-lingual method?
Repetition and drills with systematic building of language skills
## Footnote
This method emphasizes accurate pronunciation and minimizes errors.
54
What did the audio-lingual method replace in language teaching?
Methods that encourage dialogue in realistic settings
## Footnote
This shift occurred after WWII.
55
What is minimized in silent way classrooms?
Teacher speech
## Footnote
The teacher uses props like Cuisenaire rods to help students learn.
56
What does Suggestopedia rely on to reinforce language patterns?
Music and rhythm
## Footnote
Students read scripts of L2 and engage in games and music.
57
What is the initial command given in the total physical response method?
'Stand up!'
## Footnote
Commands become more complex as students progress.
58
Fill in the blank: The grammar-translation method is based on the traditional teaching of _______.
Latin
59
True or False: Communicative approaches emphasize explicit teaching of grammar.
False
## Footnote
These approaches focus on facilitating target-language use rather than grammar instruction.
60
What is Krashen's Monitor Hypothesis?
Individuals who acquire languages know inherently what is correct, but learning allows them to monitor and correct their language use.
## Footnote
Monitoring takes time and conscious attention, making it more feasible in writing than speaking.
61
What role does monitoring play in language use according to Krashen?
It allows individuals to correct their language use, but is more feasible in writing than in speaking.
## Footnote
Attempting to monitor speech can lead to interrupted speech.
62
Who are the critics of Krashen's Monitor Hypothesis?
Critics argue that children may monitor speech before learning language rules and that the hypothesis has limited scope.
## Footnote
It excludes the vast majority of speech use.
63
What is the difference between acquiring and learning a language according to Krashen?
Acquisition is unconscious and natural, while learning is a conscious process focused on studying parts of the language.
## Footnote
Acquisition leads to fluency, while learning cannot be transformed into acquisition.
64
What does Krashen argue is necessary for adults to acquire a new language?
Adults must immerse themselves in the language to acquire it.
## Footnote
Krashen did not deny that adults can acquire a new language.
65
What is Krashen's Natural Order hypothesis?
People acquire aspects of language in a natural order, with certain grammatical structures learned early and others later.
## Footnote
For example, English learners master the '-ing' form before the '-s' form.
66
What have critics argued about Krashen's Natural Order hypothesis?
Critics argue that a person's first language influences the order of acquisition in a second language.
## Footnote
Research has weakened but not overturned Krashen's findings.
67
What is Krashen's Input Hypothesis?
Language acquisition is most efficient when students receive input slightly beyond their current mastery level.
## Footnote
Comprehensible input allows students to understand meanings without explicit explanations.
68
What is the output hypothesis proposed by Merrill Swain?
Students are motivated to improve speech production when they notice their inability to express themselves fully in conversation.
## Footnote
It addresses the criticism that Krashen's Input Hypothesis only focuses on comprehension.
69
What does Krashen's Affective Filter Hypothesis state?
Students learn most effectively in low-stress environments, as affective factors like boredom or anxiety can hinder learning.
## Footnote
Affective factors significantly influence the learning process.
70
What are affective filters?
Factors that interfere with the learning process
## Footnote
Affective filters can include anxiety, motivation, and self-confidence.
71
Who is credited with developing the natural approach to second-language learning?
Stephen Krashen
## Footnote
This approach emphasizes the importance of comfort in speaking for effective language acquisition.
72
What does Krashen argue about children's language acquisition?
Children are less affected by affective factors than adults
## Footnote
This provides children with an advantage in language acquisition.
73
What is Michael Long's interaction hypothesis focused on?
The importance of comprehensible input
## Footnote
It emphasizes language just beyond an ELL's mastery.
74
What type of conversations are emphasized in Long's interaction hypothesis?
Peer conversations
## Footnote
These are considered more effective for language learning than student-teacher conversations.
75
What are cognitive strategies in second-language acquisition?
Strategies used to understand a task, including memorizing, categorizing, and summarizing
## Footnote
Research shows that a variety of cognitive strategies leads to greater success.
76
What are metacognitive strategies?
Strategies that improve one's own learning process
## Footnote
Examples include planning, self-monitoring, prioritizing, and setting goals.
77
How are metacognitive strategies correlated with language learning?
They are highly correlated with student success
## Footnote
ESL teachers should encourage their use.
78
What does Robert De Keyser's skill acquisition theory propose?
Individuals learn skills by transforming declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge
## Footnote
This occurs through meaningful use and practice.
79
What is declarative knowledge?
Knowledge about a language learned through instruction or observation
## Footnote
It includes grammatical forms and vocabulary.
80
What is procedural knowledge?
Knowledge applied in use, ideally through contextualized practice
## Footnote
It leads to fluency and the absence of errors.
81
What is the goal of De Keyser's framework in language learning?
To move an ELL student toward greater degrees of automaticity
## Footnote
This involves reinforcing declarative and procedural knowledge.
82
What is the first stage of second-language acquisition?
Silent period (preproduction stage)
## Footnote
The learner knows around 500 words but is uncomfortable speaking.
83
What should teachers do during the silent period?
Allow the student to build receptive skills while gaining confidence
## Footnote
Students should not be forced to speak.
84
What characterizes the private speech (early production stage)?
The learner creates one- and two-word phrases using 1,000 words
## Footnote
Teachers should pose questions that allow abbreviated answers.
85
At what stage does a learner use 3,000 words to form short phrases and sentences?
Lexical chunks (speech emergence stage)
## Footnote
Frequent grammatical errors occur, and students can conduct short conversations.
86
What is the fourth stage of second-language acquisition called?
Formulaic speech (intermediate language proficiency)
## Footnote
The learner uses 6,000 words and can study content subjects in English.
87
What is the fifth stage of second-language acquisition?
Experimental or simplified speech (advanced language proficiency stage)
## Footnote
The learner approaches fluency and can make generalizations about grammar.
88
What does the term 'silent period' refer to?
A common first stage in language acquisition where a student speaks little
## Footnote
Students gain confidence and consolidate comprehension of the spoken language.
89
What are effective ways for teachers to interact with students in the silent period?
Elicit 'Yes' or 'No' answers, ask for head nods, or have them draw
## Footnote
This helps demonstrate understanding without forcing speech.
90
List two differences between first and second language acquisition.
* First language is acquired without conscious effort
* Second language requires conscious effort
91
What is one similarity between the acquisition of first and second languages?
Both occur in predictable stages
## Footnote
Mistakes are normal in both processes.
92
True or False: Second language acquisition is affected by first-language grammar.
True
## Footnote
This can influence the learning process and structure.
93
Fill in the blank: The silent period is also known as the _______.
preproduction stage
94
What cognitive factors are less important in second language acquisition compared to first language?
Cognitive and affective factors
## Footnote
Learners may have varied motivations that influence progress.
95
What type of environment should teachers strive to create during the silent period?
A low-risk classroom environment
## Footnote
This encourages confidence in language use.
96
What is bilingualism?
The ability to use two languages fluently.
97
What is multilingualism?
The ability to use more than one language fluently.
98
What is simultaneous bilingualism?
Occurs when a child is raised bilingually from birth or is introduced to the second language before the age of three.
99
What is sequential bilingualism?
Occurs when a child obtains fluency in a second language after the first language is well established, usually around the age of three.
100
What does current research suggest about bilingual learners' speech production?
Bilingual learners may experience slight delays in speech production, but the variance is small and within the range of normal development.
101
How do bilingual children's vocabularies compare to their monolingual peers?
Bilingual children often possess smaller vocabularies in either language, but their combined vocabulary is on par with that of their peers.
102
What is code-switching?
A phenomenon in which speakers switch from one language to another in the same conversation, often in the same sentence.
103
What is 'Spanglish'?
A name coined for the code-switching phenomenon among bilingual Spanish-English speakers.
104
Why do people code-switch?
They may be unable to think of a word in the language they are speaking or to signal solidarity or familiarity.
105
What is interlanguage?
The version of a learned language produced at any given moment by a language learner.
106
What elements does interlanguage contain?
Elements and structures of both L1 and L2.
107
What is fossilization in language learning?
When a learner achieves a level of proficiency that allows for effective, albeit limited, communication, risking improvement.
108
Who developed the concept of interlanguage?
The linguist Larry Selinker in the 1970s.
109
What is language transfer?
Occurs when a learner applies knowledge or rules from L1 to L2.
110
What is overgeneralization in language learning?
When a learner extends a language rule beyond its actual scope.
111
Fill in the blank: Bilingualism is the ability to use _______ languages fluently.
two
112
Fill in the blank: An interlanguage may differ substantially from either L1 or L2, leading some linguists to refer to it as an entirely _______ language.
separate
113
True or False: Code-switching can also refer to alterations in discourse undertaken in a single language.
True
114
What is language transfer?
The influence of a native language (L1) on a learner's ability to learn a new language (L2)
## Footnote
Language transfer can have either positive or negative effects.
115
What is the term often used synonymously with language transfer?
Language interference
## Footnote
It specifically refers to cases of negative influence.
116
What is contrastive analysis?
The study of the similarities and differences between languages
## Footnote
Teachers can use contrastive analysis to anticipate language transfer issues.
117
How does the similarity between two languages affect language transfer?
The greater the similarity, the greater the likelihood of positive transfer.
118
What can raise the confidence and sour the interest of language learners?
Positive transfers.
119
What can teachers do to lessen the impact of negative transfers?
Become familiar with likely negative transfers from a given L1 and explicitly teach methods to overcome them.
120
What is a common example of language transfer issues between Spanish/French and English?
Using the verb 'to have' in contexts where English uses 'to be', such as 'I have hunger' instead of 'I am hungry'.
121
In many languages, including Arabic, how do adjectives typically relate to nouns?
Adjectives follow nouns, whereas in English they usually precede them.
122
How do Haitian Creole verbs differ in tense and person indication?
They do not change to indicate either tense or person.
123
What tense do Russian speakers use to convey ongoing actions that require the present progressive in English?
Present tense.
124
What is the basic word order of English?
S-V-O (Subject-Verb-Object).
125
What are the three frequently found orders of subjects, verbs, and objects in languages?
S-V-O, S-O-V, V-S-O.
126
What is a unique characteristic of Spanish sentences compared to English?
Spanish often allows for subject-verb inversion and may not state a subject at all.
127
How is possession indicated in Spanish compared to English?
Possession is indicated after an object in Spanish (e.g., 'el coche de John').
128
What is a language universal?
A characteristic shared by all the world's languages.
129
What did Joseph Greenberg publish in 1966?
A list of 45 allegedly universal characteristics of language.
130
What are absolute universals?
Characteristics that know of no exception, such as all languages having syllables, consonants, and vowels.
131
What do modern linguists work more fruitfully with?
Non-absolute universals, which have a high degree of statistical regularity but also exceptions.
132
What are implicational universals?
Language properties that occur together, fitting the logical form of 'if a language has A, it will also have B.'
133
Provide an example of a non-absolute implicational universal.
'If Verb-Subject-Object is the dominant syntax form in a language, the adjective will follow the noun.'
134
What does Jim Cummins' Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) hypothesis state?
A bilingual individual draws on a common pool of cognitive and linguistic abilities to speak either language.
135
What is the 'dual iceberg model' in the context of CUP?
It illustrates that L1 and L2 are distinct peaks but connected below the surface in a vast, single iceberg.
136
How does CUP contrast with Separate Underlying Proficiency (SUP)?
CUP theorizes that languages are interconnected, while SUP suggests they are processed separately.
137
What do proponents of SUP argue regarding ELLs?
They argue that L1 use will distract from and slow English acquisition.
138
What does evidence support regarding CUP?
Frequent use of L1 in bilingual programs does not slow English acquisition.
139
What are the six categories of strategies in Oxford's Strategies Inventory for Language Learning?
* Memorization strategies
* Cognitive strategies
* Elaboration
* Compensation strategies
* Metacognitive strategies
* Affective strategies
* Social strategies
140
What are memorization strategies?
Techniques used to remember and retrieve information, such as repetition and formulaic expressions.
141
Define cognitive strategies in language learning.
Strategies that allow students to manipulate the target language, such as analyzing or drawing conclusions.
142
What is elaboration in the context of language learning strategies?
Connecting information to what is already known, like using analogies or phrases.
143
What are compensation strategies?
Strategies used when students lack vocabulary in L2, such as code-switching.
144
What do metacognitive strategies involve?
Strategies used by students to improve their own learning habits, such as self-monitoring and planning.
145
What are affective strategies?
Strategies students use to control their emotions, like seeking reassurance or clarification.
146
What are social strategies in language learning?
Strategies students use to employ language in social settings, such as role-playing and requests for clarification.
147
What is the Strategic Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)?
An examination designed to identify the learning strategies used by foreign language students.
148
What was the purpose of the first version of SILL?
To help English speakers learning foreign languages.
149
What is the version 7.0 of SILL designed for?
Students learning English as a foreign language.
150
What are the uses of the SILL examination?
For research purposes and to give individual learners insight into their own learning profile.
151
What does the theory of multiple intelligences propose?
It proposes that there are seven (or eight) forms of intelligence, reflecting different cognitive processes and learning preferences.
## Footnote
The original intelligences defined by Howard Gardner include: visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, linguistic, logical/mathematical, and naturalistic.
152
Who broadened the definition of intelligence in 1983?
Howard Gardner
## Footnote
Gardner's work emphasized that intelligence is not just what is measured on an IQ test.
153
What is the common underlying proficiency model?
It hypothesizes that skills and concepts developed during L1 acquisition are available for subsequent L2 learning.
## Footnote
This model suggests that language knowledge is not segregated by language in the brain.
154
What is the critical period hypothesis (CPH)?
It argues that there is an optimal age for language learning, roughly from age 2 to puberty, after which the ability declines.
## Footnote
The hypothesis is based on brain development.
155
What are the eight forms of intelligence according to Gardner's model?
* Visual/Spatial
* Bodily/Kinesthetic
* Musical
* Interpersonal
* Intrapersonal
* Linguistic
* Logical/Mathematical
* Naturalistic
## Footnote
The eighth intelligence was added later to Gardner's original seven.
156
How does a student's proficiency in their native language (L1) affect L2 acquisition?
Proficiency in L1 helps in distinguishing sounds, words, and syntax patterns, facilitating L2 development.
## Footnote
Students with strong L1 skills may also have cognitive advantages like comparison and prediction.
157
What advantages do adults have in language learning compared to children?
Adults typically have cognitive and experiential advantages and often progress faster in syntax and grammar.
## Footnote
However, adults may lack motivation due to their awareness of learning difficulties.
158
True or False: Children tend to be more self-conscious about making mistakes when learning a language.
False
## Footnote
Children are generally less discouraged by difficulties in language learning compared to adults.
159
What instructional strategy is suggested for ESL teachers based on the multiple intelligences model?
Build a repertoire of instructional activities and techniques that exercise each of the intelligences.
## Footnote
A varied approach will reach a wider spectrum of learners.
160
In what ways do children have advantages in language learning?
* More exposure to the target language
* Higher affect and motivation
* Less self-consciousness about mistakes
## Footnote
These factors contribute to their ability to learn languages more intuitively.
161
Fill in the blank: The theory of multiple intelligences was proposed by _______.
Howard Gardner
162
What is the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)?
A law established in 1975 that ensures students with disabilities receive appropriate education tailored to their needs.
163
What criteria qualify students for special education assistance under IDEA?
Students must not reach age-level benchmarks in several competencies:
* oral expression
* written expression
* listening comprehension
* reading comprehension
* reading skill
164
What does IDEA specify regarding deficiencies in students?
Deficiencies cannot arise from environmental variables, including limited English proficiency or cultural differences.
165
What issue arises from the characteristics of ESL learners?
They often resemble those of native speakers with disabilities, leading to frequent misdiagnoses.
166
Who is responsible for evaluating children with potential disabilities in the U.S.?
School districts are required to have a process in place, involving a team of professionals.
167
What is an Individualized Education Program (IEP)?
A program created by an assessment team and parents that specifies accommodations, modifications, and counseling needs for a child.
168
How many conditions does IDEA cover?
Thirteen conditions.
169
What are the most commonly encountered conditions under IDEA?
Conditions include:
* attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
* specific learning disorders (dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, auditory processing disorder, nonverbal learning disability)
* autism
* emotional disturbance
* other health impairments
* deafness
* hearing impairments
* deaf-blindness
* visual impairment
* traumatic brain injury
* orthopedic impairment
* intellectual disability
* multiple disabilities
170
What is a key characteristic of learning disabilities in relation to language?
Learning disabilities very rarely manifest in just one language.
171
What should ESL teachers understand about learning disabilities?
They should differentiate between manifestations of learning disabilities and L2 learning complications.
172
What is an indicator of a learning disability?
A language deficit that doesn't improve over time or after targeted intervention.
173
What does a domain-specific deficiency indicate?
If an L2 learner performs well in writing but lags in speech production, a disability is likely.
174
What is instrumental motivation in language learning?
Students are instrumentally motivated if they learn English to achieve specific goals, such as acquiring a job or getting into college.
175
Fill in the blank: The responsibility to diagnose learning disabilities rests with _______.
[trained professionals]
176
True or False: A language deficit that comes and goes is a sign of normal L2 acquisition.
False
177
What is integrative motivation?
A positive view of one's future L2 community and the desire to fully join it.
## Footnote
According to Gardner, integrative motivation is more reliable and durable.
178
What is the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation?
Extrinsic motivation focuses on rewards or punishments, while intrinsic motivation is driven by the desire to do something for its own sake.
## Footnote
Research shows that intrinsic motivation is more reliable than extrinsic motivation.
179
How is motivation viewed in the context of individuals?
Motivation can be considered both a trait and a state.
## Footnote
It is influenced by context and situation, meaning it can change over time.
180
Who developed the taxonomy of the affective domain?
Benjamin Bloom.
## Footnote
Bloom's taxonomy includes processes that lead to student growth in affective response and understanding.
181
What is the first process in Bloom's taxonomy of the affective domain?
Receiving.
## Footnote
This is a passive condition necessary for learning but does not add value by itself.
182
What is the second process in Bloom's taxonomy?
Responding.
## Footnote
In this phase, a student is attentive and responds with positive emotion.
183
What does valuing entail in Bloom's taxonomy?
Developing preferences and commitments.
## Footnote
This is the third process in Bloom's taxonomy of the affective domain.
184
What is the fourth phase in Bloom's affective domain taxonomy?
Organization.
## Footnote
In this phase, a student develops a value system by combining elements to create a logical framework.
185
What is the final phase in Bloom's affective domain taxonomy?
Characterizing.
## Footnote
In this phase, the student internalizes learned material and acts according to this knowledge.
186
What is Zoltan Dornyei's concept of the ideal L2 self?
The image a learner has of the person they want to become through language learning.
## Footnote
This is one of the three sources of motivation according to Dornyei.
187
What does the ought-to L2 self refer to?
An image driven by a sense of obligation, often imposed by others' expectations.
## Footnote
This is the second source of motivation in Dornyei's model.
188
What constitutes the L2 learning experience in Dornyei's model?
Situational motivations that arise daily in the classroom.
## Footnote
This is the third source of motivation in Dornyei's framework.
189
What are the four ways teachers can appeal to students' motivation according to Dornyei?
* Create basic motivating conditions in the classroom
* Generate initial, individualized motivation
* Maintain and protect motivation
* Encourage self-assessment
## Footnote
These strategies are essential for ensuring persistent motivation.
190
How do teacher expectations affect student performance?
Teacher expectations can be self-fulfilling, where high expectations lead to better student performance.
## Footnote
Research has demonstrated this correlation.
191
What should teachers avoid when creating expectations for students?
Creating different expectations based on demographic factors.
192
How should teachers group students in language classes?
Form groups composed of all levels of language proficiency.
193
What is a recommended practice for calling on students in language classes?
Call on low-proficiency students as often as high-proficiency ones.
194
What type of culture should teachers foster regarding errors?
A culture in which errors are seen as a normal part of the learning process.
195
What should ESL teachers use to shape their error-correction strategies?
Knowledge of language development and communicative competence.
196
What types of errors can teachers afford to let pass?
Certain types of errors that are natural at a given stage of language learning.
197
What type of error correction is generally easier for students to learn?
Corrections involving vocabulary.
198
What should teachers focus on correcting?
Errors that impede communication.
199
According to experts, what is more important than error correction for student success?
Abundant opportunities for language practice and authentic communication.
200
Define self-efficacy.
The perception people have about their competence.
201
How does self-esteem differ from self-efficacy?
Self-esteem refers to a person's overall sense of self-approval or self-disapproval.
202
What does attribution theory analyze regarding academic outcomes?
What students believe is the cause of their success or failure.
203
List the four general causes students attribute academic outcomes to.
* Ability
* Effort
* Perceived difficulty
* Luck
204
How do students with low self-efficacy tend to attribute outcomes?
To causes outside of themselves, such as difficulty and luck.
205
What do students with high self-efficacy tend to do in response to setbacks?
Work harder.
206
What type of praise is linked to better long-term performance?
Praise for efforts or for a specific academic result.
207
Define self-esteem.
An attitude of approval or disapproval toward oneself.
208
What typology of self-esteem was created by Jonathon Brown?
Differentiates between general, situational, and task self-esteem.
209
What is global self-esteem?
A person's broad sense of self-worth.
210
What is situational self-esteem?
Self-esteem specific to a certain domain, such as athletics or social skills.
211
What is task self-esteem?
Self-esteem arising in the context of performing specific tasks.
212
What cycle is linked to self-esteem and academic success?
High self-esteem is linked to better academic performance.
213
What challenge does learning a foreign language pose to self-esteem?
Feeling a gap between what they can express in L2 and what they think or feel.
214
What is anxiety?
An abnormal sense of apprehension, often accompanied by physiological signs of stress.
215
What are the two aspects through which anxiety can be understood?
* Trait
* State
216
What types of anxiety do second-language learners experience?
* Anxiety over one's ability to communicate in L2
* Anxiety that peers will view one's L2 communication negatively
* Anxiety about evaluations and grades
217
How can understanding the source of a student's anxiety help ESL teachers?
It helps mitigate the anxiety's harmful effects.
218
What is the general impact of anxiety on learning?
Anxiety is debilitative, detracting or distracting a student from learning.
219
Can anxiety have any positive effects on learning?
Yes, it can be useful or facilitative, leading to greater focus, effort, or competitiveness.
220
What is inhibition in the context of language learning?
The inner impediment to free expression or action.
221
Why is inhibition viewed negatively?
It is often seen as a defense mechanism for individuals with low self-esteem.
222
What is a potential negative outcome of the absence of inhibition?
It can be pathological, as seen in many mental illnesses.
223
What is the significance of willingness to communicate in language learning?
It is a key factor in L2 learning success.
224
What strategies can ESL teachers use to reduce student inhibition?
* Keep the classroom affective filter low
* Develop a classroom group identity conducive to risk-taking
* Allow step-wise progression for inhibited students
* Ensure early success and ratification for inhibited students
225
What does the term 'language ego' refer to?
Changes in perceived identity experienced by individuals learning or using a second language.
226
Who introduced the concept of language ego?
Psychologist Alexander Guiora.
227
How does language ego relate to L1 competency?
A person's original identity is closely tied to their L1 competency and mastery.
228
Why do children acquire second languages more readily than adults according to Guiora?
Children's egos are less full-formed and less rigid, leading to less feelings of incompetence.
229
What are thick and thin language ego boundaries?
Thick boundaries lead to fewer inhibitions and more comfort in language learning.
230
What does the affective filter concept refer to?
The emotional response an ELL has to a language-learning environment.
231
True or False: An ELL's emotional state can hinder their learning.
True
232
What factors could contribute to a high affective filter?
Overcorrection of errors, fear of speech performance in front of peers, test anxiety
## Footnote
A high affective filter can inhibit language learning.
233
How can teachers lower student affective filters?
By being cognizant of personality differences, ensuring supportive peers, and limiting the number and significance of summative tests
## Footnote
A low affective filter promotes learning.
234
What challenges do students with a lack of formal school experience face?
Need for additional support, potential trauma, gaps in education, lack of literacy skills, high dropout rates
## Footnote
Students may be motivated to attend school but feel demotivated due to lagging behind.
235
What is assimilation in the context of acculturation?
When a minority group resembles the majority group
## Footnote
This process can lead to the loss of distinct cultural identities.
236
What does preservation mean in acculturation patterns?
When a minority community resists acculturation and maintains its distinct culture
## Footnote
Preservation allows for the continuation of unique cultural practices.
237
Define transculturation.
The phenomenon of two equally dominant cultures mixing and adopting elements of each other
## Footnote
This can result in a rich cultural exchange.
238
What does John Schumann's acculturation model suggest?
A person's success in an L2 is related to their acculturation into the L2 culture
## Footnote
Greater integration leads to more language experiences and competency.
239
What factors can limit an immigrant learner's acculturation according to Schumann?
Perceptions of the L2 community, living in a cultural enclave, linguistic similarity between L1 and L2
## Footnote
These factors can affect language learning success.
240
What is the difference between elective and circumstantial bilingualism?
Elective bilingualism is chosen for personal gain; circumstantial bilingualism is forced due to new circumstances
## Footnote
This distinction is crucial for understanding different learning contexts.
241
How do elective learners typically learn a second language?
In an artificial environment, such as a classroom
## Footnote
Their native language often remains dominant despite eventual proficiency.
242
What is a characteristic of circumstantial learners?
They learn a language to survive or succeed in new circumstances
## Footnote
They are likely to achieve greater mastery over time.
243
In what context is the distinction between elective and circumstantial learners most relevant?
In a class of adult students
## Footnote
Other conceptual categories may be more important when teaching children.
244
What is one main factor that influences student success in education?
Parental high academic expectations
## Footnote
This includes reinforcement, encouragement, and involvement in school functions.
245
How can cultural values affect ESL students' motivation to master a second language?
Cultures may value education differently, potentially limiting motivation to master L2
## Footnote
Especially in families that seek to preserve home cultures.
246
What is a potential issue for parents of ESL students regarding school involvement?
Limited English ability may hinder participation in school functions
## Footnote
This can lead to a lack of involvement in meetings with teachers.
247
What can happen in families where a child's English proficiency exceeds that of a parent?
Estrangement, conflict, and withdrawal of parental support for language learning may occur
## Footnote
This creates a vicious cycle affecting language acquisition.
248
How do educational policies at various levels influence ESL programs?
They determine how ESL programs are structured and administered in schools
## Footnote
This includes federal, state, and local policies.
249
What is one positive outcome of schools celebrating diversity?
Better language outcomes for ESL students
## Footnote
Integration of different language communities is crucial.
250
Why is it important for schools to recognize minority languages and cultures?
It increases buy-in from ESL students
## Footnote
Recognition of their cultures encourages embracing a new culture.
251
What role do community organizations play in successful ESL programs?
They participate in school activities and sponsor events showcasing minority cultures
## Footnote
Engagement should extend to families and communities.
252
What impact does poverty have on student performance?
It leads to cognitive lags, emotional deficits, and ongoing stress
## Footnote
These factors substantially reduce the ability to learn.
253
What is the estimated percentage of English language learners (ELLs) from low-income families?
More than 50%
## Footnote
This highlights the need for ESL teachers to understand the effects of poverty.
254
What are some specific at-risk behaviors identified by states or school districts?
* Erratic attendance
* Behavioral issues
* Apathy
* Negative interaction with peers
* Sudden changes in behavior
## Footnote
At-risk concepts can sometimes lead to stereotyping.
255
True or False: The concept of at-risk is universally accepted without controversy.
False
## Footnote
Many believe it is misapplied to entire groups rather than identifying individual needs.
