FQ4: How does the acquisition of skill affect performance?

Question 1

What are the stages of skill acquisition?

Answer 1

1. Cognitive
2. Associative
3. Autonomous

Question 2

Describe the cognitive stage of skill acquisition.

Answer 2

• mental processing of information, thinking and understanding
• fundamental requirement
• conceptualisation
• demonstrations
• errors, awkwardness, disorientation
• high concentration, high rates of error

e.g. tennis - hit the ball and lift your head

Question 3

Describe the associative stage of skill acquisition.

Answer 3

• emphasis on practice; connecting or linking ideas
• repetition to enhance synchronisation of mind and muscles
• errors smaller and less frequent
• need feedback
• sense of fluency develops
• confidence increases

E.g. tennis forehand - step and leading through while keeping your eyes on the ball and start to swing through = smoothness

Question 4

Describe the autonomous stage of skill acquisition.

Answer 4

• ability to automatically execute the skill
• properly sequenced
• performed instinctively
• able to attend other cues while giving little thought on how to perform the skill
• practice at simulating competition/strategy rather than skill

E.g. netball game - pass is autonomous, who to pass + type of pass is not

Question 5

What are the characteristics in a learner?

Answer 5

1. Personality
2. Heredity
3. Confidence
4. Prior experience
5. Ability

Question 6

Describe personality as a characteristic of the learner.

Answer 6

• way of behaving (consistency, reliability, level of motivation, ability to express feelings)
• cooperative, willing to listen, determined, enthusiastic, intrinsically motivated, willing to take risks, more receptive to feedback
• positive growth mindset
• productive learning environment

Question 7

Describe heredity as a characteristic of the learner.

Answer 7

• unchangeable: limits potential
• fast:slow twitch muscle fibres
• somatype (ectomorph = linearity, mesomorph = muscularity, endomorph = roundness)
• gender
• height
• conceptual ability

Question 8

Describe confidence as a characteristic of the learner.

Answer 8

• firm belief
• critical in improvement of skill acquisition + performance of everyday tasks
• achievement is progressive and gradual, within one’s ability = enhances confidence + nurses self-image whilst building foundation for future skill-building

Question 9

Describe prior experience as a characteristic of the learner.

Answer 9

• an experience linked to the influence of an already learned task on one to be acquired - has the potential to accelerate the learning process
• Lateral transfer: transfer from one task to another similar task
• Vertical transfer: mastering a lower order task as a prerequisite for something more difficult within the same activity
• positive and negative

E.g. cricket - can positively transfer to baseball
E.g. badminton and tennis - can negatively transfer wrist action

Question 10

Describe ability as a characteristic of the learner.

Answer 10

• way an individual can learn + process + implement new skills
• sharpness: gathers cues quickly
• perception
• reaction time
• intelligence

Question 11

What are the different natures of skill? Provide definitions.

Answer 11

OPEN SKILL:
Unpredictable environment that is continually changing

CLOSED SKILL:
Environment that is stable and predictable

GROSS MOTOR SKILL:
Require the use of large muscle groups for execution

FINE MOTOR SKILL: Require the use of only small muscle groups to perform the movement

DISCRETE SKILL:
Skills that have a distinct beginning and end that can be identified

SERIAL SKILL:
Involve a sequence of smaller movement that are assembled together to make a total skill

CONTINUOUS SKILL:
Skills that have no distinct beginning or end

SELF-PACED SKILL:
Movement where the performer determines the timing and speed of execution

EXTERNALLY-PACED SKILL:
Movement where an external force controls the timing

Question 12

What are the performance elements within the learning environment?

Answer 12

1. Decision-making
2. Strategic and tactical development

Question 13

Explain how productive decision making is best achieved.

Answer 13

1. Observation
2. Questioning
3. Whole, part, whole approach
4. Creativity

best improved by making decisions in performance-like situations (rules, playing conditions, agreed team strategies, opposition tactics)

Question 14

What is the tactical skill learning process and strategic development?

Answer 14

1. Understanding
   - knowledge
   - self-confidence
   - familiarity with consequences of error
2. Enhance decision making ability
   - relevant cues and variations in game-like situations
   - apply tactical options

built on problem solving (error –> learning from it –> developing creative solutions)

strategic development can be enhanced as tactical skills become functional (planning, practice)

Question 15

What are the practice methods in the learning environment?

Answer 15

1. Massed
2. Distributed
3. Whole
4. Part

Question 16

Explain the difference between massed and distributed practice.

Answer 16

MASSED:
- continuous practice session with rest intervals being shorter than the practice intervals
- works best when highly motivated, fresh, unable to attend a no. of sessions

DISTRIBUTED:
- broken practice sessions with the intervals of rest or alternative activities being longer than the practice intervals
- spreads the periods of intensive work more liberally
- works best when performer lacks interest, difficult task, low motivation, task causes fatigue, excessive work causes discomfort

Question 17

Explain the difference between whole and part practice.

Answer 17

WHOLE: applied when a skill is practised in its entirety

PART: skill is broken into smaller components - each discrete subskill (subroutine) is practised separately

WHOLE-PART-WHOLE:
1. Total skill is demonstrated and practised
2. Discrete segments are extracted from the total movement and analysed separately
3. Skill is reassembled, practised and again rehearsed

Question 18

What are the types of feedback?

Answer 18

1. Internal
2. External
3. Concurrent
4. Delayed
5. Knowledge of results
6. Knowledge of performance

Question 19

Explain the relationships between feedback and performance.

Answer 19

1. Action is highly unsuccessful → feedback should suggest learner substitute or replace action
2. Action is unsuccessful → feedback should suggest learner modify the action
3. Action is successful → feedback should suggest learner repeat the action

Question 20

Explain the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic feedback.

Answer 20

INTRINSIC:
feedback experienced during execution of the skill; received through body’s proprioceptive mechanisms (senses)
- Proprioception → neuromuscular system sending messages to brain about how the movement is being performed
- More motivating than extrinsic/more sustainable in the long-term

EXTRINSIC:
feedback derived from outside sources during performance of a skill; all feedback other than that at which occurs as a normal consequence of performance
- Augmented feedback → supplementary/additional information that is not given immediately while the skill is performed, but is used later to illustrate a point

Question 21

Explain the difference between concurrent and delayed feedback.

Answer 21

Concurrent feedback → received during the performance of a skill; occurs simultaneously with skill execution
- Relayed throughout the body by the proprioceptive mechanism

delayed/terminal feedback → feedback received at a later stage

Question 22

Explain the difference between knowledge of results and knowledge of performance.

Answer 22

Knowledge of results → information about the outcome of a movement
- Suggests how successfully skills as performed
- always external

Knowledge of performance → information about the pattern of the movement during execution
- More specific to the way skill is performed
- Gives feedback on the quality of execution of skill
- Generated from internal or external sources

Question 23

How can skill and performance be assessed?

Answer 23

1. Characteristics of skilled performers
2. Objective and subjective performance measures
3. Validity and reliability of tests
4. Personal vs judging criteria

Question 24

What are the characteristics of skilled performers?

Answer 24

1. Kinaesthetic sense
2. Anticipation
3. Consistency
4. Technique

Question 25

Describe each characteristic of skilled performers. Provide an example of each.

Answer 25

KINAESTHETIC SENSE: - system of sensitivity that exists in the muscles and their attachments = 'muscle memory' - regular practice improves kinaesthesis - Brain injury can destroy kinaesthetic function → precise movements difficult or impossible E.g. tennis - return serves where ball speeds regularly reach 200 km/h + → limbs respond reflexively + with control - muscular + neurological system sync to meet the ball in the centre of the strings and adjust to topspin/backspin → what action + force applied = autonomic response (feel, touch sensation conditioned by practice yet has effortless control) ANTICIPATION: - Skilled performers able to predict what may happen in specific situations - added time to respond + more attention - articularly important in externally paced activities - where fast movement + decision making are necessary - Needs to be developed regularly CONSISTENCY: - Skilled performers more consistent → able to perform desired movement repeatedly - Sense of trust in one’s emotional control + ability to execute action/plan is necessary (committment) - Psychological skills (imagery, concentration, confidence, self-talk, arousal control) → underlying factors in gaining greater consistency - Improved by exposure to pressure situations, knowledge of what to do, trust in self, control of situational anxiety E.g. tennis - more consistent in rallies, clear the net, keep the ball in court more regularly TECHNIQUE: - procedure/practical method applied to a particular task - advantages: efficient, skillful, aesthetically pleasing, better chance of success, better chance of sustaining under pressure, less change of injury - Developed through drills + game-related activities E.g. elite tennis players - serve at high speeds + apply bounce + topspin + rallies for extended periods of time

Question 26

Explain the difference between objective and subjective performance measures.

Answer 26

Subjective observation → refers to a judgement of performance quality based on feelings, impressions or opinions Use of instruments makes data more credible by eliminating guesswork → increases degree of objectivity - less accurate Objective observation → when judges or testers apply the same criteria to measure a performance and do not need to interpret information - use of instruments - lies on continuum

Question 27

Explain the difference between validity and reliability of tests.

Answer 27

VALIDITY → honesty of a test; degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure - Judgements about the test items - known good performers score better than known poor performers - Using already validated but similar tests as an indicator - relationship between validated and new test is close - Accuracy in prediction - reliable indicator of future performance - Ensuring test items contain the component being validated RELIABILITY → degree of consistency of a test; ability of test and tester to produce the same results on successive occasions - Similar procedures - Similar conditions - Similar equipment

Question 28

Explain the difference between personal and prescribed judging criteria.

Answer 28

PERSONAL CRITERIA → preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a performance - disadvantages: more suited to appreciation rather than comparing 2 performances - preconceived attitudes, expectations, opinions and possible bias may contribute to judgements that others may believe to be incorrect or unjustified PRESCRIBED CRITERIA → established by sports organisation or body and form the basis of assessment for competitions in that sport or activity - Seeks to absorb elements of subjectivity into a more objective framework - Convert appraisal into meaningful measurements - During competition - judge matches the performance to the criteria to rate standard of performance