French wars

Question 1

How far was the success of the British army in the French Wars due to the role of Wellington?

Answer 1

P1. Wellington

→ Wellington’s strategic and tactical leadership was essential to many major British victories, particularly in the Peninsular War.

• Victory at Salamanca (1812) → surprise attack with masterful timing.
• Success at Vittoria (1913) → outflanking French forces, forcing a retreat from Spain.
• Battle of Waterloo (1815) → held the line until Prussian reinforcements arrived.
• Emphasis on logistics, supply lines, and defensive positioning (e.g. reverse slope and lines of Torres Vedras).

P2. the role of the navy and economic power

→ British naval power and economic strength underpinned army operations and isolated France strategically.

• Battle of Trafalgar (1805) → ensured British naval dominance; Napoleon could not invade Britain.
• Naval blockade disrupted French trade and supplies, weakening French economy.
• Ability to transport troops/supplies to Portugal and Spain via sea.

P3. contribution of allies and army reform

→ The success of the British army also depended on the support of the allies and internal military reforms.

• Spanish and Portuguese guerrilla warfare disrupted French forces and helped Wellington operate.
• The Portuguese army, trained and reorganised by General Beresford, fought effectively under Wellington’s command.
• Prussia intervention at Waterloo under Blucher was decisive.
• Army reforms under Sir John Moore and others improved training, supply, and discipline before Wellington’s rise.

Question 2

What role did Nelson play in shaping Britain’s naval war with France?

Answer 2

P1. Nelson’s tactical innovation and battlefield success

→ Nelson revolutionised naval tactics and delivered decisive victories that changed the course of the war.

• Battle of the Nile (1798) → surprise attack, sailing between the French fleet and shore = devastated the French Mediterranean fleet.
• Battle of Copenhagen (1801) → ignored a withdrawal signal, pressed the attack, secured a critical victory against Denmark.
• Battle of Trafalgar (1805) → used unorthodox tactic of splitting his fleet into two perpendicular lines, destroying the Franco-Spanish fleet.

P2. leadership, morale, and naval culture

→ Nelson’s leadership style inspired his men and helped create a highly motivated, professional naval force.

• Led from the front; wounded in battle (lost an arm, blinded in one eye).
• Known for personal connection with officers and sailors → created loyalty and cohesion.
• Cultivated a heroic image; his death at Trafalgar turned him into a national icon.

P3. limitations → Nelson’s role in context

→ Nelson was vital, but Britain’s naval success also relied on wider strategic and structural factors.

• The naval blockade of French ports was maintained for years by commanders like St Vincent and Cornwallis.
• Superior shipbuilding, supply systems, and financial power underpinned long-term naval strength.
• Other admirals and officers carried out vital duties across the globe (e.g. Cochrane, Collingwood).

Question 3

How significant was the impact of the French Wars on the British economy?

Answer 3

P1. economic strain → taxation, debt, and govt spending

→ The wars placed enormous strain on government finances, leading to a sharp rise in taxation and debt.

• National debt rose from £228 million in 1793 to over £800 million by 1815.
• Introduction of income tax (1799) by Pitt the Younger to fund the war effort.
• Heavy government spending on military campaigns and subsidies to allies.
  P2. industrial growth and war production

→ The war helped stimulate industrial development, particularly in key sectors like textiles, iron, and shipbuilding.

• Increased demand for uniforms, weapons, and ships supported manufacturing.
• Cotton and woollen industries expanded to supply the army and navy.
• Innovations in mechanisation and the factory system continued, despite wartime disruption.

P3. trade disruption vs long-term dominance

→ While war disrupted international trade, especially with Europe, Britain adapted and even expanded its global reach.

• Continental system (1806) and British naval blockades restricted European trade.
• British merchants shifted to colonial and neutral markets (e.g. Latin America, India)
• The re-export trade and shipping sector remained strong.