Functionalist, Strain and Subculture Theories

Question 1

What is the basic functionalist view of crime and deviance?

Answer 1

Functionalists argue that society is based on a value consensus, a general agreement on norms and values that fosters social solidarity.

They see crime and deviance as threatening social stability but also inevitable.

Question 2

Why do Functionalists see crime as beneficial?

Answer 2

-it can reinforce norms

-define boundaries

-drive social change

Question 3

Why do functionalists argue deviance is found in all societies?

Answer 3

No society can perfectly socialise all members into the same norms and values. Individuals differ in lifestyles, and modern societies are especially diverse, guaranteeing some level of deviance.

Question 4

define shared culture

Answer 4

A set of norms, values, beliefs, and goals that produce social solidarity.

Question 5

According to Durkheim, what unites society at its core?

Answer 5

A shared culture - Durkheim called this the collective conscience, and it underpins the value consensus on which society is built.

Question 6

What two processes help society achieve social solidarity, according to Durkheim?

Answer 6

1) Socialisation: instilling shared norms and values in individuals.

2) Social control: reinforcing conformity via sanctions—rewarding compliance and punishing deviance—to maintain order.

Question 7

Why is crime considered ‘inevitable’ for Durkheim?

Answer 7

Because not everyone is equally socialised into the collective conscience, and modern societies have complex divisions of labour and multiple subcultures, leading to some degree of anomie (normlessness). Thus, crime/deviance is an unavoidable aspect of social life.

Question 8

What key term does Durkheim use to describe a state of normlessness?

Answer 8

He uses the term anomie—a situation where individuals lack clear guidelines due to weakened or unclear norms and values.

Question 9

Why does modern society tend towards anomie in Durkheim’s view?

Answer 9

A specialised division of labour makes people’s roles and lifestyles very different, which in turn weakens the collective conscience and the clarity of shared norms, thus increasing deviance.

Question 10

In Durkheim’s words, how did he describe the normality of crime in 1893?

Answer 10

He stated: “crime is normal … an integral part of all healthy societies.” This underscores Durkheim’s belief that deviance is found everywhere and can have positive functions.

Question 11

What is Durkheim’s first identified ‘positive function’ of crime?

Answer 11

Boundary maintenance—crime provokes condemnation from society, which reinforces shared norms and moral boundaries, uniting members against wrongdoing.

Question 12

How does the punishment of crime reinforce society’s boundaries?

Answer 12

Punishment does not aim solely to remove criminals but to dramatise wrongdoing and reaffirm society’s shared moral code. By publicly punishing offenders, society strengthens its collective values.

Question 13

How can the media contribute to the boundary maintenance function of deviance?

Answer 13

By publicising and sensationalising crime (often creating “folk devils”), the media highlights deviance and amplifies the condemnation. This warns others and reaffirms moral boundaries.

Question 14

What is Durkheim’s second identified ‘positive function’ of deviance?

Answer 14

Adaptation and change—when existing norms are challenged by deviant acts, it can spark social progress if society adapts. Deviance can thus introduce new ideas or push boundaries in beneficial ways.

Question 15

Why is deviance necessary for social change, according to Durkheim?

Answer 15

Every social innovation or reform initially breaks existing rules. If all deviance were suppressed completely, societies would be stagnant and would never evolve or improve.

Question 16

Why does Durkheim say neither too high nor too low a level of crime is desirable?

Answer 16

• Too much deviance can destabilise society and weaken social bonds.
• Too little deviance suggests an overly repressive society that stifles individual freedom and innovation.

Question 17

What is Kingsley Davis’s (1937; 1961) example of a positive function of deviance?

Answer 17

He viewed prostitution as a “safety valve” for releasing men’s sexual frustrations without threatening the nuclear family, thus potentially preserving that institution.

Question 18

How does Ned Polsky (1967) see deviance as positively functional?

Answer 18

He argued that pornography acts as a safe channel for sexual desires, potentially preventing more damaging acts like adultery.

Question 19

What is Albert Cohen’s view on deviance as a warning sign?

Answer 19

High rates of certain deviant behaviours (e.g., truancy) can indicate that a social institution (like the education system) is malfunctioning, thus alerting society to underlying problems.

Question 20

What does Kai Erikson (1966) say about society’s relationship with crime?

Answer 20

If deviance performs vital functions for society (e.g., reinforcing boundaries), society may be organised to maintain a certain level of crime rather than eliminate it entirely.

Question 21

According to Erikson, what role might agencies of social control actually play?

Answer 21

They can perpetuate deviance by labelling certain acts or groups as deviant, effectively maintaining the problem they claim to combat. This ensures deviance remains at a consistent level.

Question 22

In what ways do some societies manage deviance rather than trying to eliminate it?

Answer 22

They permit deviance in specific, time‐limited contexts (e.g., carnivals, festivals, ‘wild’ youth rites) so that deviance can be contained and not disrupt broader social order.

Question 23

Why is there a criticism that Durkheim’s theory doesn’t specify the ‘right amount’ of deviance?

Answer 23

Durkheim never provides a metric or guidelines for determining when deviance crosses from “functional” to “dysfunctional,” leaving his notion somewhat vague.

Question 24

How might “crime strengthening solidarity” fail to explain the real causes of crime?

Answer 24

Just because deviance can unite society doesn’t mean it exists for that reason. Factors like inequality, marginalisation, or personal motives better explain why people actually break the law.

Question 25

How can deviance actually lead to isolation rather than unity?

Answer 25

Rising crime can breed fear, prompting people to stay indoors, distrust neighbours, or move away, which in turn decreases social cohesion instead of strengthening it.

Question 26

Why do critics question who deviance is functional for?

Answer 26

Crime might benefit society as a whole in an abstract sense, but it often harms victims or marginalised groups. Functionalists sometimes overlook these unequal impacts of deviance.

Question 27

Who devised the first strain theory, and when?

Answer 27

Merton in 1938

Question 28

Which two factors does Merton combine in his explanation of deviance?

Answer 28

1) Structural factors—the unequal distribution of legitimate opportunities. 2) Cultural factors—the strong emphasis on success goals (especially monetary) while placing less emphasis on legitimate means.

Question 29

What historical event in the USA helped shape Merton’s strain theory?

Answer 29

The Wall Street Crash (1929) and subsequent Great Depression, which revealed huge gaps between the cultural emphasis on success and the realities of limited opportunities.

Question 30

In Merton’s strain theory, what cultural factor drives deviance?

Answer 30

The intense focus on achieving money success (the “American Dream”), where achieving wealth is paramount, often overshadowing ethical or legitimate considerations.

Question 31

What structural factor does Merton highlight as creating pressure to deviate?

Answer 31

The unequal access to legitimate means (e.g., quality education, career pathways) that makes it difficult for many to reach culturally prescribed success goals legally.

Question 32

Which two elements produce what Merton calls the ‘strain to anomie’?

Answer 32

1) The culturally prescribed goal of success/wealth. 2) The limited opportunities available for achieving it, causing frustration and a potential turn to illegitimate means.

Question 33

Why is the American Dream central to Merton’s explanation?

Answer 33

It promises meritocratic advancement through hard work, yet many face systemic barriers (e.g., poor schools, discrimination). This discrepancy creates strain, pushing some into deviance.

Question 34

How does blocked opportunity produce crime, according to Merton?

Answer 34

When legitimate avenues (like education, stable employment) are blocked, individuals experience frustration and may adopt illegitimate means (crime) to achieve society’s success goals.

Question 35

What does Merton say about “winning the game” in American society?

Answer 35

Winning (i.e., achieving money success) is often prized over “playing by the rules.” This means people prioritize outcomes over the ethical or lawful ways of achieving them.

Question 36

How many possible adaptations to strain does Merton identify?

Answer 36

Five adaptations: -conformity -innovation -ritualism -retreatism -rebellion

Question 37

What is ‘conformity’ in Merton’s scheme?

Answer 37

Accepting both society’s goals (money success) and legitimate means (e.g., higher education, hard work). This is the most common, non‐deviant response.

Question 38

Which social group is most likely to adopt conformity?

Answer 38

Mainly middle‐class individuals who have better access to educational and occupational opportunities, enabling legitimate success.

Question 39

What is ‘innovation’?

Answer 39

Accepting society’s success goal but rejecting legitimate means in favour of new, often illegal methods (e.g., theft, fraud) to reach material success.

Question 40

Who is most likely to adopt innovation?

Answer 40

Those in lower‐class or marginalised positions who lack the same legitimate opportunities as the middle class, but still desire money success.

Question 41

What characterises ‘ritualism’?

Answer 41

People who give up on the broader success goal yet rigidly adhere to legitimate routines. They follow the rules without expecting significant upward mobility or wealth.

Question 42

Which class is typically associated with ritualism?

Answer 42

Often lower‐middle‐class individuals in repetitive or dead‐end jobs, who maintain respectable behaviour but have lost ambition for higher success.

Question 43

What is ‘retreatism’ in Merton’s typology?

Answer 43

Rejecting both society’s success goals and the legitimate means, effectively dropping out of mainstream culture. Examples: chronic alcoholics, drug addicts, vagrants.

Question 44

How do retreatists differ from ritualists or conformists?

Answer 44

Unlike ritualists, retreatists have rejected following any norms. Unlike conformists, they do not share mainstream aspirations. They are often isolated and disengaged.

Question 45

What is ‘rebellion’ according to Merton?

Answer 45

Rejecting the current goals and means but replacing them with new ones, seeking a transformative social change. Rebellious groups want to restructure society fundamentally.

Question 46

Who might exemplify rebellion?

Answer 46

Political radicals, revolutionary movements, or subcultures (e.g., certain counterculture groups) that propose an alternative social order.

Question 47

How does Merton account for the high rate of property crime in American culture?

Answer 47

The cultural obsession with material success leads many to “innovate”—pushing property offenses (theft, burglary, fraud) as common ways to attain money illegally.

Question 48

Why does Merton believe crime rates are higher among the lower classes?

Answer 48

They face the biggest gap between cultural goals (wealth) and legitimate means (quality education, stable jobs), creating greater strain that fosters deviance.

Question 49

What is one criticism of Merton’s reliance on official statistics?

Answer 49

They overrepresent working‐class street crime and underrepresent crimes by middle or upper classes (e.g., white‐collar or corporate crime).

Question 50

What do Marxists say Merton overlooks?

Answer 50

They argue he ignores the power of the ruling class in defining laws that target poor people’s deviance while being more lenient on elite crimes, thus criminalising poverty.

Question 51

Which types of crime receive little explanation under Merton’s model?

Answer 51

Non‐utilitarian crimes (e.g., vandalism, violence) and large‐scale or corporate/state crimes that aren’t directly about individual monetary gain.

Question 52

Why is Merton said to ignore the role of group deviance?

Answer 52

He focuses on how individuals adapt to strain, rather than how collective deviant subcultures form or operate (e.g., gangs).

Question 53

In contrast to Merton, how do subcultural strain theories view deviance?

Answer 53

They emphasise deviance as a group phenomenon: when people (especially youths) can’t succeed via mainstream values, they join or create subcultures with alternative norms.

Question 54

What is the main argument of subcultural strain theories regarding blocked opportunity?

Answer 54

That when legitimate routes to success are blocked, people develop collective solutions—subcultures that offer an alternative path to status or reward.

Question 55

Who proposed an influential subcultural strain theory focusing on working‐class boys?

Answer 55

Cohen in 1955.

Question 56

What does Cohen criticise about Merton’s approach to deviance?

Answer 56

He says Merton focuses too heavily on utilitarian (money‐oriented) deviance and overlooks group or non‐financial forms of delinquency, particularly among youths.

Question 57

Why do working‐class boys experience status frustration, according to Cohen?

Answer 57

They fail in a middle‐class‐dominated school system (lacking cultural capital and success at official standards), causing a sense of status deprivation and frustration.

Question 58

How do these boys resolve their status frustration, in Cohen’s view?

Answer 58

They invert mainstream values by joining a delinquent subculture that rewards behaviours mainstream society condemns (e.g., truancy, vandalism), thus gaining alternative status.

Question 59

What is the ‘alternative status hierarchy’ that Cohen describes?

Answer 59

A subculture where deviant activities provide recognition and prestige. Acts like fighting or rule‐breaking become a source of respect, replacing mainstream success criteria.

Question 60

Why does Cohen’s work offer a better explanation for non‐utilitarian crime than Merton’s theory?

Answer 60

He shows how deviant acts (e.g., vandalism) can be about status and acceptance in a subculture, not purely about monetary gain or material need.

Question 61

What assumption about shared goals in youth does Cohen make that some critics question?

Answer 61

He assumes working‐class boys start by sharing the middle‐class success goals but fail. Critics argue they may have distinct values from the outset, not simply an inversion of middle‐class aims.

Question 62

Which pair of sociologists extended Merton’s ideas with their own subcultural strain theory in 1960?

Answer 62

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin.

Question 63

On what key point do Cloward and Ohlin agree with Merton?

Answer 63

They share Merton’s view that lack of legitimate opportunities (for money success) leads to deviance—but they also consider differing illegitimate opportunities.

Question 64

What crucial factor do Cloward and Ohlin add that Merton and Cohen do not focus on?

Answer 64

The existence of different illegitimate opportunity structures—not everyone with blocked legitimate means has the same access to criminal pathways (e.g., organised crime vs. drug subcultures).

Question 65

What three types of deviant subculture do Cloward and Ohlin identify?

Answer 65

1) Criminal subcultures 2) Conflict subcultures 3) Retreatist subcultures

Question 66

Where do criminal subcultures typically develop, according to Cloward and Ohlin?

Answer 66

In stable, cohesive neighbourhoods with a longstanding hierarchy of adult crime—offering youth an ‘apprenticeship’ in utilitarian (income-generating) offenses.

Question 67

What characterises conflict subcultures?

Answer 67

They arise in disorganised areas with high turnover, lacking established criminal networks. As a result, youths often form violent gangs focusing on territorial or status-based conflict.

Question 68

Who are the ‘double failures’ in Cloward and Ohlin’s model?

Answer 68

Individuals who fail in both legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structures, pushing them into a retreatist subculture often centred on drugs, alcoholism, or vagrancy.

Question 69

Why do Cloward and Ohlin’s subcultures receive criticism for drawing clear‐cut lines?

Answer 69

In reality, subcultural boundaries may overlap—some gang members engage in both criminal and conflict behaviours or mix drug use with organised crime, making these categories too rigid.

Question 70

What additional criticism do Cloward and Ohlin face regarding higher‐class deviance?

Answer 70

They (like Merton and Cohen) focus on working‐class crime, largely ignoring white‐collar or corporate crime committed by middle‐class or wealthy individuals.

Question 71

Why are theories like Cohen’s and Cloward & Ohlin’s often called ‘reactive theories’?

Answer 71

They propose that subcultures form in reaction to mainstream society’s blockage of legitimate success, suggesting deviant groups emerge due to status frustration with conventional routes.

Question 72

How does Walter B. Miller (1962) challenge the reactive assumption?

Answer 72

He argues the lower class has its own distinct focal concerns (e.g., toughness, excitement, fate) that do not simply invert middle‐class norms or arise from frustration.

Question 73

What does David Matza (1964) observe about delinquents’ commitment to subcultural values?

Answer 73

He contends most youths “drift” between conventional and deviant behaviour, indicating they’re not fully committed to an alternative value system all the time.

Question 74

Which political perspective has drawn from Merton’s ideas on structural inequalities and blocked opportunities?

Answer 74

Left realism, which focuses on how social reforms (e.g., reducing poverty, improving housing) can expand legitimate opportunities and thus reduce crime.

Question 75

How did Cloward and Ohlin influence policy under President Kennedy in the 1960s?

Answer 75

Their analysis of unequal opportunities informed anti‐poverty programs that sought to create more legitimate avenues for success, thus cutting off some motivation for crime.

Question 76

What do more recent strain theorists argue about young people’s goals beyond money success?

Answer 76

They note that many youths also seek popularity, respect, autonomy, or fairness. Blocked access to these non‐financial goals can also lead to deviant adaptations.

Question 77

How can strain arise for middle‐class youths under recent strain theories?

Answer 77

Even they can face blockages in personal or social goals (e.g., peer acceptance, emotional support). When these are unattainable, frustration can manifest as deviance.

Question 78

Which modern theory focuses on the American Dream’s “anything goes” mentality in pursuit of money success?

Answer 78

Messner and Rosenfeld’s (2001) Institutional Anomie Theory, which argues that the overemphasis on economic success in the USA undermines other social institutions.

Question 79

Why do Messner and Rosenfeld see high crime rates in the USA as linked to the economy?

Answer 79

They say economic interests dominate all other institutions (family, education), weakening non‐market values. This fosters an “anything goes” mentality where deviance becomes more common.

Question 80

How does institutional anomie theory argue education is undermined?

Answer 80

Schools increasingly focus on labour market outcomes, pushing economic success above moral or civic aims. This overemphasis on competition and results can fuel deviance.

Question 81

What did Downes and Hansen (2006) find in their comparative survey of 18 countries?

Answer 81

Nations that invested more in welfare had lower rates of imprisonment, suggesting robust social support systems can reduce crime by mitigating strain.

Question 82

How does Savelsberg (1995) apply strain theory to post‐communist Eastern Europe?

Answer 82

He observed that as collectivist values eroded and capitalist individualism spread, crime rates increased significantly, echoing the link between strain, capitalism, and deviance.

Question 83

What is one major contribution of Durkheim’s approach to understanding deviance?

Answer 83

He shows deviance can have functions (boundary maintenance, facilitating change) and is not purely harmful. Crime can reflect the collective conscience at work.

Question 84

What problem arises when functionalists say deviance can be functional for society?

Answer 84

They risk ignoring or downplaying how victims and marginalised groups are harmed. The bigger societal “benefit” doesn’t account for the unequal distribution of costs.

Question 85

Why do critics say Durkheim never showed how to determine the optimal level of crime for a society?

Answer 85

Although he mentions too much or too little crime, he gives no specific criteria or method to measure or manage this balance in practice.

Question 86

How is punishment seen differently by functionalists than by, say, left realists?

Answer 86

Functionalists emphasise punishment’s role in reaffirming collective values, whereas left realists focus on issues of inequality, marginalisation, and the need for rehabilitation.

Question 87

What is one reason Merton’s theory has enduring influence?

Answer 87

He systematically links cultural goals, structural inequalities, and individual adaptations, making the theory widely applicable to various forms of deviance.

Question 88

Which deviant adaptation in Merton’s typology is least common?

Answer 88

Rebellion—it requires a full rejection and replacement of both goals and means, often involving organised, ideological movements for societal change.

Question 89

What does Merton’s concept of ‘innovation’ clarify about white‐collar crime?

Answer 89

Though Merton focused on lower‐class deviance, the logic of “innovation” also applies to middle/upper‐class offenders who use fraud or embezzlement to achieve financial success.

Question 90

Why is A.K. Cohen’s focus on group delinquency a key contribution to subcultural theory?

Answer 90

He highlights that a lot of youth crime is collective and often non‐utilitarian, which Merton’s individually oriented, money‐focused strain theory largely neglects.

Question 91

According to Cohen, why are subculture norms sometimes “malicious” or “negativistic”?

Answer 91

Because they invert mainstream values, taking pleasure in what society condemns. It’s a form of rebellion born from deep frustration with mainstream norms.

Question 92

Why did Cloward and Ohlin label subcultural paths ‘illegitimate opportunity structures’?

Answer 92

They noted that criminal, conflict, and retreatist subcultures offer alternative, structured ways for individuals to achieve status or cope, parallel to (but outside) legitimate means.

Question 93

How does the ‘criminal subculture’ differ from Merton’s individual innovation?

Answer 93

It involves an organised, group‐based system of illegal activity, often with adult mentors and an “apprenticeship” in utilitarian crime, rather than a lone individual turning to deviance.

Question 94

What kind of deviance typically emerges in conflict subcultures?

Answer 94

Violent, turf‐based deviance (gang fights, intimidation), fueled by disorganisation and lack of legitimate or stable criminal opportunities in the area.

Question 95

Why do critics say subcultural strain theories ignore female deviance?

Answer 95

They focus almost exclusively on male, working‐class youth groups, leaving female experiences of strain or subculture underexplored.

Question 96

What is one reason subcultural theories are labelled as ‘functionalist’?

Answer 96

They assume value consensus in wider society, portraying subcultures as deviating from widely shared mainstream norms and emphasising how these subcultural values arise from structural conditions.

Question 97

How does Miller’s (1962) view differ from Cohen’s “status frustration” approach?

Answer 97

Miller argues that the lower class has its own, independent subcultural “focal concerns” (e.g., toughness, excitement) that are not simply an inversion of middle‐class goals or the result of status frustration.

Question 98

What does David Matza mean by ‘techniques of neutralisation’?

Answer 98

They are justifications delinquents use (e.g., denying harm, blaming the victim) that allow them to drift in and out of deviance while still partially accepting mainstream values.

Question 99

Which sociologist’s term “folk devils” is sometimes used to describe how media reinforce boundary maintenance?

Answer 99

Stanley Cohen (1972). He detailed how moral panics and “folk devils” can unite society in condemning certain groups, reinforcing social boundaries.

Question 100

How might Durkheim’s idea of boundary maintenance appear in modern contexts?

Answer 100

Social media can rapidly spread outrage, uniting large numbers of people in collectively condemning deviant acts and reaffirming shared norms online.

Question 101

Why does deviance sometimes bring communities closer together?

Answer 101

A serious crime or moral panic can mobilise collective outcry, reinforcing a sense of shared values and prompting communal support or unity.

Question 102

How might strong condemnation of a deviant group inadvertently strengthen deviance?

Answer 102

By labelling them as outcasts (“folk devils”), society may push them into further isolation, solidifying subcultural identities and increasing deviant behaviour.

Question 103

What does Merton’s analysis of the American Dream highlight about cultural pressure?

Answer 103

It shows how intense cultural glorification of success can exacerbate strain for those lacking opportunities, driving them toward illegitimate means.

Question 104

How do Marxists criticise the way strain theories treat laws?

Answer 104

They argue strain theories ignore how the capitalist ruling class shapes laws to protect their interests and penalise the lower classes, thus framing deviance in class‐biased ways.

Question 105

What solution do some policy‐makers see in strain theories?

Answer 105

They propose expanding legitimate opportunities (improving education, training, reducing poverty) to alleviate the pressures that push people into deviance.

Question 106

According to institutional anomie theory, how do other institutions become subservient to the economy?

Answer 106

Family, education, and political institutions adopt a market logic, valuing economic success above social or moral goals, which undermines their socialising functions.

Question 107

Why is crime said to have risen in post‐communist societies, according to Savelsberg?

Answer 107

The shift from collectivist values to capitalist individualism in Eastern Europe created new strains and opportunities for profit‐driven crime, causing a surge in deviance.

Question 108

What general conclusion can be drawn from functionalist, strain, and subcultural theories?

Answer 108

All focus on how social structures and cultural pressures create conditions for deviance—whether as an adaptation to blocked opportunities, a response to anomie, or a collective reaction to status denial.

Question 109

Why do functionalist approaches say deviance can strengthen social integration?

Answer 109

Responding to deviance (through condemnation, punishment) unites conforming members, reaffirming the collective conscience and value consensus.

Question 110

What is the main disadvantage of purely functionalist explanations of deviance?

Answer 110

They can overlook victims, power inequalities, and how deviance may harm specific groups, focusing too much on the societal benefits of crime.

Question 111

Which aspect of subcultural strain theories remains influential today?

Answer 111

Their emphasis on group values, peer status, and local opportunity structures as catalysts for deviant behaviour—particularly youth offending.

Question 112

How do recent expansions of strain theory help explain diverse forms of deviance?

Answer 112

They show that deviance isn’t only about money. People may be driven by blocked goals like respect, popularity, or identity, and thus form deviant subcultures or commit acts beyond purely economic motivations.