Fundamental Planning Knowledge Flashcards
(143 cards)
1
Q
Jamestown colony is established.
A
1607
2
Q
Plan for Philadelphia, created by William Penn, is the first major grid plan in the U.S. Philadelphia also has first neighborhood park system created by Thomas Holme.
A
1682
3
Q
Annapolis, MD – First radio-centric street plan in U.S. designed by Francis Nicholson
A
1695
4
Q
Williamsburg, VA – Masterpiece of American colonial city planning created by Francis Nicholson
A
1699
5
Q
Savannah, GA – Ward park system: followed for over 120 years. Designed by James Oglethorpe
A
1733
6
Q
Revolutionary War begins.
A
1775
7
Q
Revolutionary War ends.
A
1783
8
Q
Ordinance of 1785 established a system of rectangular survey coordinates; this opened the door to settlement of the American West.
A
1785
9
Q
First US Census
Washington D.C. – First U.S. Grand Plan created by Pierre Charles L’Enfant, A. Ellicott, Benjamin Banneker
A
1790
10
Q
Louisiana Purchase (800,000 square miles) – doubles nation’s size
A
1803
11
Q
Governor & Judges Plan for Detroit – Vast radial plan; second city plan adopted by Congress created by Woodward/Hull
A
1807
12
Q
Cumberland Road is the first major road in the US constructed with federal funds (Cumberland, MY to Columbus, OH)
A
1811
13
Q
Erie Canal construction begun
A
1817
14
Q
Erie Canal completed and operational
A
1825
15
Q
Small grid plan laid out at site of Chicago
A
1830
16
Q
NY tenements (for waves of European immigrants)
A
1830’s -1840’s:
17
Q
Salt Lake City “City of Zion” plan by Brigham Young; Joseph Smith
A
1848
18
Q
Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux – Central Park design
A
1851
19
Q
First “model tenement” built in Manhattan
A
1855
20
Q
Central Park, NYC – First major purchase of parkland (Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr.)
A
1856
21
Q
Central Park “Greensward” Plan – First major English Garden in U.S. (Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., Calvert Vaux)
A
1857
22
Q
American Civil War begins.
A
1861
23
Q
● Homestead Act of 1862 – accelerated the settlement of the western territory by granting adult heads of families 160 acres of surveyed public land for a minimal filing fee and 5 years of continuous residence on that land
A
1862:
24
Q
● Morrill Act – Congress authorizes land grants from the Public Domain to the states. Proceeds from the sale were to be used to found colleges offering instruction in agriculture, engineering, and other practical arts (A&M colleges).
A
1862
25
New York Council of Hygiene of the Citizens Association mounts a campaign to raise housing and sanitary standards
1864
26
American Civil War ends
1865
27
● San Francisco passed the first land use zoning restrictions on the location of obnoxious uses.
1867
28
● Tenement House Act of 1867 – 1st New York tenement housing law is enacted. Required fire escapes from each suite as well as windows in each room. Builders met the letter of the 1867 law by merely inserting meaningless windows between interior rooms. Without air shafts, the 1867 requirement failed to increase natural light or fresh air ventilation in the crowded tenement "dark bedroom (“Old Law”).
1867
29
● Purchase of Alaska
1867
30
Riverside, IL – Model curved street "suburb" (Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., Calvert Vaux)
1868
31
The Union Pacific and the Central Pacific railroads meet at Promontory Point, Utah, on May 10 to complete the first transcontinental railroad.
1869
32
Yellowstone is first national park
1872
33
“Munn v. Illinois” – paved the way for future government intervention in land use (when property is devoted to a use having a public interest, owner must submit to be controlled by the public for the common good)
1877
34
John Wesley Powell's Report on the Lands of the Arid Region of the United States is published. Includes a proposed regional plan that would both foster settlement of the arid west and conserve scarce water resources.
1878
35
● Progress and Poverty published. In this influential book Henry George presents an argument for diminishing extremes of national wealth and poverty by means of a single tax (on land) that would capture the "unearned increment" of national development for public uses
1879
36
● Tenement House Act of 1879 – required that every habitable room have a window opening to plain air, a requirement that was met by including air shafts between adjacent buildings. Tenement dwellers tossed garbage, bilge water and waste into these air shafts which were not designed for garbage removal. As a result, the law's attempt to improve sanitation only created a new sanitation problem. (“Old Law”)
1879
37
● Debut of the "Dumbbell Tenement," so called because of its shape. A form of multifamily housing widely built in New York until the end of the century and notorious for the poor living conditions it imposed on its denizens (lack of light, air, space).
1879
38
● Establishment of U.S. Geological Survey to survey and classify all Public Domain lands
1879
39
Building of Pullman, Illinois, model industrial town by George Pullman
1880 - 1884:
40
Chicago’s Hull House founded by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr
1889
41
How the Other Half Lives by Jacob Riis published.
1890
42
General Land Law Revision Act – gave President power to create forest preserves by proclamation.
1891
43
Sierra Club founded to promote the protection and preservation of the natural environment. John Muir, Scottish-American naturalist, and a major figure in the history of American environmentalism, was the leading founder.
1892
44
Chicago’s World Fair - Columbian Exposition stimulates city planning; foundations for City Beautiful Movement. Some claim "Birth" of Modern American City Planning. Daniel Burnham’s “White City”. (Daniel Burnham, Frederick L. Olmsted, Sr. Charles F. McKim, Augustus St. Gaudens)
1893
45
“Children of the Poor” by Jacob Riis published
1892:
46
Kansas City, MO – Metropolitan Park Plan (George Kessler)
1893
47
Pullman Strike Workers Riot (Eugene Debs)
1894
48
● South Shore Dr. Chicago, IL – First attempt to Haussmannize Chicago (Daniel Burnham)
1896:
49
● United States v. Gettysburg Electric Railway Co. The first significant legal case concerning historic preservation. The U.S. Supreme Court rules that the acquisition of the national battlefield at Gettysburg served a valid public purpose
1896
50
● United States v. Gettysburg Electric Railway Co. The first significant legal case concerning historic preservation. The U.S. Supreme Court rules that the acquisition of the national battlefield at Gettysburg served a valid public purpose
1896
51
● Forest Management Act – Authorized some control by the Secretary of the Interior over the use and occupancy of the forest preserves
1897
52
● First underground railroad constructed in Boston.
1897
53
A Peaceful Path of Real Reform by Ebenezer Howard published. Garden City Movement initiated.
1898
54
1900-1920
Between 1900 and the outbreak of WWI in Europe in 1914, more than thirteen million immigrants arrived in the United States, pouring into industrial cities largely from the rural regions of central and southern Europe. Out of this new urban working class sprang not only new forms of poverty and overcrowded, tenement living but also powerful political machines, vigorous labor unions. The health and immigration concerns gave way to the Public Health and Settlement House movements. The Garden City movement continued into the early 1900’s. City Beautiful movement began declining. The First World War gave Americans their first vision of a more effectively managed international order. The idea of reorganizing the world for the more efficient management of international disputes had many sources in this period, and gave way to the City Efficient movement.
55
1901
New York State Tenement House Law – The legislative basis for the revision of city codes that outlawed tenements such as the "Dumbbell Tenement." Lawrence Veiller was the leading reformer. Requires permits for construction, alteration and conversion, inspections, penalties for construction, space for light and air between structures, and toilet and running water for each apartment.
56
1902
● U.S. Reclamation Act – uses funds from the sale of public lands to finance water storage and irrigation projects
57
1902
● McMillan Plan created for the development of Washington D.C. Created by Millan Commission (Sen. James McMillan, Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., Charles McKim). Inspired by the original 1791 plan for the City by Pierre L’Enfant.
58
1903
● Cleveland Group Plan – first local civic center plan in the U.S. Daniel Burnham, John Carrere, and Arnold Brunner were responsible for the plan's development. Stimulated civic plans throughout U.S.
59
1903
● Letchworth, England designed as a City of 35,000 surrounded by greenbelt (Garden City).
● First national wildlife refuge established by Theodore Roosevelt at Pelican Island, FL.
60
1906
● Antiquities Act of 1906 – First law to institute federal protection for preserving archaeological sites. Provided for designation as National Monuments areas already in the public domain that contained "historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and objects of historic or scientific interest."
● Plan of San Francisco – San Francisco was the first major American city to apply the City Beautiful principles, using a plan developed by Daniel Burnham.
61
1907
● First town planning board was created in Hartford, Connecticut (Hartford Commission).
● Pittsburg, PA – First comprehensive social science city survey (Shelby Harrison)
● Hampstead Garden Suburb, England – First neighborhood unit design (Raymond Unwin)
62
1909
● Chicago Plan – Daniel Burnham created the first metropolitan regional plan for Chicago. Creates large area with outer belt of regional parks and reservations, radial and concentric highways, lakefront park system, straightens Chicago River.
● Washington, D.C. – First National Conference on City Planning and the Problems of Congestion (Benjamin Marsh, Henry Morgenthan)
● Wisconsin was the first state to pass enabling legislation.
● Los Angeles was the first city to use land use zoning to guide development.
● "The Principles of City Planning" Harvard Univ. – First American course in city planning (James Sturgis Pray)
63
1910 - 1913:
Forest Hills Gardens, Long Island, NY – First American application of the neighborhood unit idea
64
1911
Frederick Winslow Taylor publishes The Principles of Scientific Management, fountainhead of the efficiency movements in this country, including efficiency in city government.
65
1912
● “Eubank v City of Richmond” – finds that municipal control of the horizontal location of buildings on private property (via setback legislation) is constitutional.
● Walter Moody published Wacker's Manual of the Plan of Chicago, adopted as an eighth-grade textbook by the Chicago Board of Education. This is the first known formal instruction in city planning below the college level.
66
1913
● Federal Reserve Act – created Federal Reserve as central bank
● US Transcontinental Highway – Lincoln Hwy
67
1914
● WWI begins
● Panama Canal completed and opened to world commerce
● Carrying Out the City Plan by Flavel Shurtleff (first major text on city planning)
● Newark, New Jersey hired the first full-time employee for a city planning commission, Harland Bartholomew. Bartholomew went on to become one of the most famous planning consultants.
68
1915:
Hadacheck v Sebastian” – regulation not precluded by fact the values on investments prior to regulation would be diminished by the regulation (essentially validated zoning).
69
1916
● Nelson P. Lewis published Planning of the Modern City
● Nation's first comprehensive zoning resolution adopted by New York City Board of Estimates under the leadership of George McAneny and Edward Bassett, known as the "Father of Zoning”.
● Federal-Aid Road Act – aided with state highway construction (4.7 million cars by 1917).
● National Park Service established.
70
1917
American City Planning Institute (ACPI) created. First professional planning organization in America. Frederick L. Olmsted, Jr. (first president)
71
1918
● WWI ends.
● U.S. Housing Corporation and Emergency Fleet Corporation established. Influenced later endeavors in public housing. Operated at major shipping centers to provide housing for World War I workers
72
1919
● Three early unfunctional regional authorities: The Metropolitan Sewerage Commission, the Metropolitan Water Board and the Metropolitan Park Commission – combined to form the Boston Metropolitan District Commission.
● Bronx River Parkway, NY – First American Parkway
● Ohio Planning Conference – First statewide citizen's association in support of planning; model for APA.
73
1920-1940
This era includes post-World War I, the Great Depression, and the beginning of World War II. In the 1920’s the United States enjoyed a period of prosperity. New industries (especially electric power, movies, automobiles, gasoline, tourist travel, highway construction, and housing) flourished. The influence of the Garden City movement continued into the 1930’s. In 1929, the stock market crashed leading to the Great Depression. The Great Depression forced the stop of the City Efficient movement. In the 1930s, the United States entered the period of deep isolationism. The result of this was the City Humane movement. Roosevelt’s New Deal created a new role for government in American life. This people-oriented movement aborted by the reorientation of national energies to military matters in the late 1930s and the early 1940.
74
1920
U.S. Census First Census to show more than 50% of Americans as "urban"
75
1921:
● New Orleans creates nation’s first historic commission, Vieux Carre (French Quarter) becomes historic district in 1937.
● New York/New Jersey Port of New York Authority created. First bi-state functional authority
76
1922:
● Los Angeles County formed the first regional planning commission.
● “Pennsylvania Coal v. Mahon” – The first decision to hold that a land use restriction constituted a taking. The U.S. Supreme Court (Justice Brandeis dissenting) noted "property may be regulated to a certain extent, [but] if regulation goes too far it will be recognized as a taking," thus acknowledging the principle of a "regulatory taking
● JC Nichols creates world’s first automobile-oriented shopping center, County Club Plaza, Kansas City, MO.
● Longview, WA – Exceptionally well-planned industrial town; room for each land use to expand (S. Herbert Hare, George Kessler)
77
1924
Secretary Herbert Hoover of the U.S. Department of Commerce issued the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act.
78
1925
● The City of Cincinnati was the first major U.S. city to adopt a comprehensive plan, produced by Alfred Bettman and Ladislas Segoe.
● Publication of "Regional Plan" issue of Survey Graphic, influential essays on regional planning by Lewis Mumford and other members of the Regional Planning Association of America (e.g., Catherine Bauer).
● Ernest Burgess's "Concentric Zone" model of urban structure and land use is published.
● The American City Planning Institute and the National Conference on City Planning published the first issue of City Planning, the predecessor to the current Journal of the American Planning Association.
79
1926
Village of Euclid v Ambler Realty Co” – established the constitutionality of comprehensive zoning.
80
1928
● The U.S. Department of Commerce, under Secretary Herbert Hoover, released the Standard City Planning Enabling Act.
● Construction of Radburn, New Jersey, begun. Planned community inspired by Howard's Garden City concept and designed by Clarence Stein and Henry Wright. A forerunner of the New Deal's Greenbelt towns. Creation of superblocks, parks in center bounded by 2-story SF houses. Separation of pedestrian and vehicular traffic.
● Robert Murray Haig's monograph "Major Economic Factors in Metropolitan Growth and Arrangement" is published in Volume I of The Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs. Viewed land use as a function of accessibility
● Regional plan of New York completed. Includes “Neighborhood Unit” by Clarence Perry.
81
1929
● Harvard University Creates first graduate school of City Planning.
● Clarence Perry's monograph on the Neighborhood Unit is published in Volume VII of The Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs
● Wisconsin law, first instance of rural zoning, authorized county boards "to regulate, restrict and determine the areas within which agriculture, forestry and recreation may be conducted."
● Stock market crash in October ushers in Great Depression and fosters ideas of public planning on a national scale
82
1931
National Land Utilization Conference convened in Chicago. Three hundred agricultural experts deliberate on rural recovery programs and natural resource conservation. Conservation & Environment
83
1932
● Federal Home Loan Bank System established to shore up shaky home financing institutions
● Reconstruction Finance Corporation established at the outset of the Great Depression to revive economic activity by extending financial aid to failing financial, industrial, and agricultural institutions
● Frank Lloyd Wright publishes The Disappearing City . Introduces the Broadacre City concept.
84
1933
● FDR inaugurated. New Deal begins with a spate of counter-depression measures.
● The National Planning Board established in the Interior Department to assist in the preparation of a comprehensive plan for public works under the direction of Frederick Delano, Charles Merriam, Wesley Mitchell. Its last successor agency, the National Resources Planning Board, was abolished in 1943.
● Civilian Conservation Corps established to provide work for unemployed youth and to conserve nation's natural resources
● Federal Emergency Relief Administration set up under Harry Hopkins to organize relief work in urban and rural areas
● Tennessee Valley Authority – created to provide for unified and multipurpose rehabilitation and redevelopment of the Tennessee Valley, America's most famous experiment in river-basin planning. Senator George Norris of Nebraska fathered idea, and David Lilienthal was its most effective implementer. It was an independent, multifunctional governmental regional planning agency (flood protection, water management, recreational developments, power generation). Brought electricity to rural areas and small towns. First federal regional planning effort.
● The Agricultural Adjustment Act is passed to regulate agricultural trade practices, production, prices, supply areas (and therefore land use) as a recovery measure
● Cleveland, OH – First state enabling act for public housing. (Ernest Bohn)
85
1934
● National Housing Act of 1934 – Established Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC) for insuring savings deposits and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) for insuring individual home mortgages
● American Society of Planning Officials (ASPO) is founded. First national organization of citizens in support of planning. Alfred Bettman was 1st President.
● Taylor Grazing Act is passed, its purpose to regulate the use of the range in the West for conservation purposes
● "Final Report" by the National Planning Board on its first year of existence. Includes a section entitled "A Plan for Planning" and an account of the "Historical Development of Planning in the United States." The latter views American planning history in the context of U.S. political and economic history.
86
1935
● Resettlement Administration (under U.S. Department of Agriculture) established under Rexford Tugwell (Roosevelt’s "braintruster”) to carry out experiments in land reform and population resettlement. This agency built the three Greenbelt towns (Greenbelt, Maryland; Greendale, Wisconsin; Greenhills, Ohio) forerunners of present day New Towns: Columbia, Maryland; Reston, Virginia; etc. A fourth town was planned but not completed in Roosevelt (originally Homestead), New Jersey. Influenced Garden City and other elements.
● Soil Conservation Act – Congress moves to make prevention of soil erosion a national responsibility
● Social Security Act passed to create a safety net for elderly. Frances Perkins, Secretary of Labor and first woman cabinet member, was a principal promoter.
● Publication date of Regional Factors in National Planning by the National Resources Committee, a landmark in regional planning literature.
● The Historic Sites, Buildings and Antiquities Act (a predecessor of the National Historic Preservation Act) passed. Requires the Secretary of the Interior to identify, acquire, and restore qualifying historic sites and properties and calls upon federal agencies to consider preservation needs in their programs and plans.
● Congress authorizes construction of the Grande Coulee Dam in Central Washington State. Finished in 1941, it is the largest concrete structure in the U.S. and the heart of the Columbia Basin Project, a regional plan comparable in its scope to TVA. The project's purposes are irrigation, electric power generation and flood control in the Pacific Northwest.
87
1936
Hoover Dam on the Colorado River completed. Creates and sustains population growth and industrial development in Nevada, California, and Arizona.
88
1937:
● U.S. Housing Act of 1937 (Wagner-Steagall) – Set the stage for future government aid by appropriating $500 million in loans for low-cost housing. Tied slum clearance to public housing. First legislative commitment to public housing. (Catherine Bauer, Ernest Bohn, Robert Wagner)
● Farm Security Administration established, successor to the Resettlement Administration and administrator of many programs to aid the rural poor.
● Our Cities: Their Role in the National Economy published. A landmark report by the Urbanism Committee of the National Resources Committee. (Ladislas Segoe headed research staff.)
89
1938
ACPI becomes American Institute of Planners (AIP). The American Institute of Planners, the planning field's professional organization, states as its purpose: "... the planning of the unified development of urban communities and their environs, and of states, regions and the nation, as expressed through determination of the comprehensive arrangement of land uses and land occupancy and the regulation thereof."
90
1939
● Homer Hoyt's influential "sector theory" of urban growth appears in his monograph, The Structure and Growth of Residential Neighborhoods in American Cities.
● WWII begins.
91
1940-1960
This era is very dynamic as it includes significant events such WWII and Post WWI efforts. As a result of the involvement of the U.S. in WWII, the City Functional movement emerged. It had an emphasis on functionalism and administrative efficiency. Focused on "scientific" city management, including consideration for waste removal, zoning, and altering spaces for convenience and efficiency. From 1945 (end of WWII) to 1964 was a time of high economic growth and general prosperity. It sparked the rise of the suburbs and a growing middle class. It was also a time of confrontation as the capitalist United States and its allies politically opposed the Soviet Union and other communist countries starting the Cold War. African Americans united and organized, and the Civil Rights Movement began.
92
1940
First Census to show American cities losing population to the suburbs and first census of housing quality.
93
1941
● Local Planning Administration by Ladislas Segoe, first of "Green Book" series, appears and becomes the planning "cookbook" in postwar period.
● Robert Walker's Planning Function in Urban Government published
94
1943
● Nuclear plants for WWII Oak Ridge, TN and Hanford, WA built by federal government
● Bretton Woods (New Hampshire) Agreement. The U.S. and allies meet to establish the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)
● National planning experiment ended National Resources Planning Board 'abolished' by Congress (de-funded).
95
1944
Serviceman's Readjustment Act ("G.I. Bill"). Guaranteed loans for homes to veterans under favorable terms, thereby accelerating the growth of suburbs
96
1945
WWII ends.
97
1946
Golden Triangle Urban Renewal Project begins in Pittsburg, PA (Alfred Bettman).
98
1947
● Housing and Home Financing Agency (predecessor of HUD) created to coordinate federal government's various housing programs
● Atlanta, GA – Atlanta Metro planning created by state legislature: first in U.S. funded from beginning with public funds.
● Secretary George C. Marshall uses his Harvard College commencement address to propose the Marshall Plan for the reconstruction of postwar Europe
● Construction of Park Forest, Illinois, and Levittown, New York, begins
99
1949
● Housing Act of 1949 (Wagner-Ellender-Taft Bill) – First U.S. comprehensive housing legislation. Aimed to construct about 800,000 units. Inaugurated urban redevelopment program federal program for central city redevelopment. Requires compliance with city plan.
● The National Trust for Historic Preservation is created and chartered by Congress
100
1954
● “Berman v. Parker” – U.S. Supreme Court upholds right of Washington, D.C. Redevelopment Land Agency to condemn properties that are unsightly, though non- deteriorated, if required to achieve objectives of duly established area redevelopment plan.
● “Brown v. Board of Education” – U.S. Supreme Court upholds school integration.
● Housing Act of 1954 – Stressed slum prevention and urban renewal rather than slum
clearance and urban redevelopment as in the 1949 act. Also stimulated general planning for cities under 25,000 population by providing funds under Section 701 of the act. "701 funding" later extended by legislative amendments to foster statewide, interstate, and sub-state regional planning (comprehensive planning funding assistance). Required urban renewal projects to be part of comprehensive plan.
● Northland Mall – the model shopping plaza created by Victor Gruen in Detroit, MI.
● The Council of Government movement (COGS) begins in the Detroit area with the formation of a Supervisors' Inter-County Committee composed of the representatives of each county in southeastern Michigan for the purpose of confronting areawide problems. It soon spreads nationwide.
101
1956
Federal Aid Highway Act – Funding for over 40,000 miles of limited-access highways connecting the all state capitals and most cities of 50,000 population or more.
102
1957
● F. Stuart Chapin publishes Urban Land Use Planning.
● Education for Planning - A seminal, book-length inquiry by Harvey S. Perloff into the "appropriate intellectual, practical and 'philosophical' basis for the education of city and regional planners ...
103
1958
First Urban growth boundary established in Lexington and Fayette County, Kentucky.
104
1959
● A "Multiple Land Use Classification System" (A. Guttenberg) published in Journal of American Institute of Planners. The first approach to the definition of land-use classifications in multidimensional terms
● Congress establishes the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations (ACIR), with members from various branches of government. Serves primarily as a research agency and think tank in area of intergovernmental relations.
● The American Collegiate Schools of Planning (ASCP) is born when a few department heads of planning schools get together at the annual ASIP conference to confer on common problems and interests regarding the education of planners
● The St. Lawrence Seaway is completed. This joint U.S.-Canada project created, in effect, a fourth North American seacoast, opening the American heartland to sea-going vessels
● Housing Act of 1959 – Enacted program under Section 202. to allow seniors to live with dignity by providing assistance with housing and supportive services, the program has gone through various programmatic iterations during its lifetime.
105
1960-1980
This era includes the climax and victory of the Civil Rights Movement; the escalation and ending of the Vietnam War; the drama of a generational revolt with its sexual freedoms and use of drugs; and the continuation of the Cold War, with its Space Race to put a man on the Moon. In 1964, President Johnson’s Great Society program was introduced, including the War on Poverty and Model Cities. The main goal was the total elimination of poverty and racial injustice. In the late 60’s Planned Unit Developments (PUD’s) gain popularity. The economy was prosperous and expanding until the recession of 1969–70, then faltered under new foreign competition and the 1973 oil crisis. The late 60’s early 70’s introduces New Federalism in which many programs terminated, replaced with decentralized programs and federal revenue sharing. The mid 60’s introduced Advocacy movement, initiated to assist the disenfranchised in America. This not only pertained to people but the natural environment. The modern Environmental movement was spurred by several events and literature which raised the public awareness of harm to the environment caused by man. The United States passed many pieces of environmental legislation in the 1970s. American society was polarized by the ultimately futile war and by antiwar and antidraft protests, as well as by the shocking Watergate affair, which revealed corruption and gross misconduct at the highest level of government. By 1980 and the seizure of the American Embassy in Iran, including a failed rescue attempt by U.S. armed forces, there was a growing sense of national malaise.
106
1960
Image of the City by Kevin Lynch published.
107
1961
● The Death and Life of Great American Cities by Jane Jacobs published.
● U.S. Housing Act of 1961 – Creates "221-d-3" interest subsidized housing for low and middle incomes: new major federal housing subsidy program.
● Washington, D.C. "Corridors and Fingers Plan": basis for Washington Metro Subway system.
● Hawaii was the first state to introduce statewide zoning, which was later amended in 1978.
108
1962
● New Jersey became the first state to license the practice of planning.
● A Delaware River Basin Commission representing the states of New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania is created to foster joint management of the river's water resources.
● The urban growth simulation model emerges in the Penn-Jersey Transportation Study
● "A Choice Theory of Planning," seminal article in AIP Journal by Paul Davidoff and Thomas Reiner, lays basis for advocacy planning concept.
● Rachel Carson's book, Silent Spring is published.
● The Fairfax County Board of Supervisors establishes Virginia's first residential planned community zone, clearing the way for the creation of Reston, a full-scale, self-contained New Town 18 miles from Washington, D.C.
109
1963
Columbia, Maryland, a new town situated about halfway between Washington and Baltimore, featuring some class integration and the neighborhood principle.
110
1964
● Civil Rights Act outlaw’s discrimination based on race, creed, and national origin in places of public accommodation.
● T.J. Kent publishes The Urban General Plan.
● The Federal Bulldozer by Martin Anderson indicts then-current urban renewal program as counterproductive to its professed aims of increased low- and middle-income housing supply. With Herbert Gans's The Urban Villagers (1962), a study of the consequences for community life in a Boston West End Italian-American community, contributes to a change in urban policy.
● In a commencement speech at the University of Michigan, President Lyndon Johnson declares war on poverty and urges congressional authorization of many remedial programs, plus the establishment of a cabinet-level Department of Housing and Community Development.
111
1965
● Housing and urban policy achieve cabinet status when the Housing and Home Finance Agency is succeeded by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Robert Weaver becomes HUD's first Secretary and nation's first African-American cabinet member.
● Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965 – extensive, provides rental supplements, low interest loans, subsidies.
● The Public Work and Economic Development Act passes Congress. This act establishes the Economic Development Administration to extend coordinated, multifaceted aid to lagging regions and foster their redevelopment.
● Congress passes the Water Resources Management Act authorizing Federal-Multistate river basin commissions.
● The Appalachian Regional Planning Act establishes a region comprising all of West Virginia and parts of 12 other states, plus a planning commission with the power to frame plans and allocate resources.
● John Reps publishes The Making of Urban America, the first comprehensive history of American urban planning beginning with colonial times
112
1966
● The Demonstration Cities and Metropolitan Development Act of 1966 launched the "model cities" program, an interdisciplinary attack on urban blight and poverty. A centerpiece of President Lyndon Johnson's "Great Society" program.
● With Heritage So Rich, a seminal historic preservation book, is published.
● National Historic Preservation Act passed – Establishes the National Register of Historic Places and provides, through its Section 106, for the protection of preservation-worthy sites and properties threatened by federal activities. This act also creates the national Advisory Council on Historic Preservation and directs that each state appoints a State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO).
● Section 4(f) of the Department of Transportation Act provides protection to parkland, wildlife refuges, and other preservation-worthy resources in building national roads. Unlike parkland and wildlife refuges, however, privately owned historic sites as well as those in public ownership are protected by Section 4(f).
113
1967
● The planning profession reaches its 50th anniversary with a celebratory conference in Washington, D.C. Many of the earliest practitioners and founders of the profession attend together with eminent leaders of other professions.
● The "(Louis B.) Wetmore Amendment" drops the final phrase in the 1938 AIP declaration of purpose which tied it to the comprehensive arrangement and regulation of land use. The effect is to broaden the scope and membership of the profession by including "social planners" as well as "physical planners."
114
1968
● Civil Rights Act of 1968 – Creates the Fair Housing Act (FHA) which expanded on previous acts and prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, religion, national origin. Parallel Supreme Court decision. Also creates Indian Civil Rights Act which makes many but not all of the guarantees of the Bill of Rights applicable within the tribes.
115
1968
● U.S. Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968 – to assist in the provision of housing for low- and moderate-income families, and to extend and amend laws relating to housing and urban development. Creates "Section 235" and "Section 236" subsidy programs.
o Section 235 guarantees for lenders to offer mortgages for low- and moderate-income families with $200 down and 20% of a household’s salary, and 1% mortgage interest rates. These guarantees were insured by the Federal Housing Administration. in some cases, increased segregation; white families were encouraged to purchase in suburban, newly developed areas, whereas black families, held up by exclusionary practices, primarily purchased homes in lower-income, central-city areas.
o Section 236 provided assistance for moderate-income renters, replacing the 221(d)(3) Below-Market-Interest Rate program that had been created by the 1961 Housing Act. Developers would receive a subsidy to reduce their mortgage interest rate to just 1%. This program was used to support the majority of housing built by New York's prolific Empire State Development Corporation, then known as the Urban Development Corporation, and which completed roughly 30,000 housing units between 1968 and 1975.
o Title IV, provided funding for New Town projects. The initial funding of $500 million was reduced to $250 million. Jonathan, Minnesota, and Park Forest South, Illinois developments were the first to utilize this funding.
116
1968
● Cheney v. Village 2 at New Hope – Court found that planned unit developments are acceptable if the regulations focus on density requirements rather than specific rules for each lot.
● To implement Intergovernmental Relations Act of 1968 the Office of Management and Budget issues Circular A-95 requiring state and sub state regional clearinghouses to review and comment on federally assisted projects to facilitate coordination among the three levels of government.
117
1969
● Ian McHarg publishes Design with Nature, tying planning to the natural environment.
● National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) requires an "environmental impact statement" for every federal or federally aided state or local major action that might significantly harm the environment
● Mel Scott publishes American City Planning Since 1890. Reissued in 1995 by the American Planning Association
118
1970
● First "Earth Day," January 1
● Federal Environment Protection Agency (EPA) established to administer main provisions of the Clean Air Act (1970).
● The Miami Valley (Ohio) Regional Planning Commission Housing Plan is adopted, the first such plan in the nation to allocate low- and moderate-income housing on a "fair share" basis
119
1971
AIP adopted a Code of Ethics for professional planners.
120
1972
● Coastal Zone Management Act adopted.
● General revenue sharing inaugurated under the U.S. State and Local Fiscal Assistance Act.
● In “Golden v. Planning Board of Ramapo”, New York high court allows the use of performance criteria as a means of slowing community growth.
● Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) begins
● Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (Clean Water Act of 1972) – to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters; recognizing the responsibilities of the states in addressing pollution and providing assistance to states to do so, including funding for publicly owned treatment works for the improvement of wastewater treatment; and maintaining the integrity of wetlands.
● Demolition of St. Louis's notorious Pruitt-Igoe Project symbolizes a nationwide move away from massive, isolating, high-rise structures to a more humane form of public housing architecture: low-rise, less isolated, dispersed.
121
1973
● Endangered Species Act – Authorized Federal assistance to state and local jurisdictions to establish conservation programs for endangers plant and animal species
● Oregon Land Use Act – created statewide planning system and identified an Urban Growth Boundary (UGB).
122
1974
● The Housing and Community Development Act of 1974 – program of community development block grants, to amend and extend laws relating to housing and urban development, and for other purposes. Replaces the categorical grant with the block grant (CDBG) as the principal form of federal aid for local community development.
● Safe Drinking Water Act - ensure safe drinking water for the public.
123
1975
● Cleveland Policy Plan Report shifts emphasis from traditional land-use planning to advocacy planning. Landmark Publication History of Planning Profession.
● “Southern Burlington County NAACP v. Township of Mount Laurel” (Mount Laurel I) – New Jersey Supreme Court found that Mount Laurel had exclusionary zoning that prohibited multi-family, mobile home, or low- to moderate-income housing. The court required the Town to open its doors to those of all income levels.
124
1976
Historic Preservation Fund established.
125
1977
● The first exam for AIP membership was administered.
● Urban Development Action Grant (UDAG) established, assisting distressed cities and urban counties in promoting economic development.
126
1978
Penn Central Transportation Co. v. City of New York” – U.S. Supreme Court upholds New York City's Landmark Preservation Law as applied to Grand Central Terminal. In this landmark decision, the Court found that barring some development of air rights was not a taking when the interior of the property could be put to lucrative use. Establishes Transfer of Development Rights (TDR).
● Urban Park and Recreation Recovery Act – gives matching grants and technical assistance to economically distressed urban communities to revitalize and improve recreation opportunities.
● AIP and ASPO are merged to create the American Planning Association (APA) and, within it, The American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP).
127
SINCE 1980
"Reagan Revolution" begins. Planning profession challenged to adapt to a new (counter-New Deal) policy environment: reduced federal domestic spending, privatization, deregulation, etc. Phase-out of some earlier aids to planning (e.g., sewer grants) and planning programs (e.g., "Title V Regions"). Unemployment is high and poverty increased.
128
1980
● Comprehensive Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CRCLA) aka “Superfund Bill” passed by Congress – Creates liability for persons discharging hazardous waste into the environment. Taxes polluting industries to establish a trust fund for the cleanup of polluted sites in cases where individual responsibility is not ascertainable.
● The Associated Collegiate Schools of Planning (ACSP) is established to represent the academic branch of the planning profession
129
1981
● “Metromedia v. City of San Diego” – struck down ordinance prohibiting off-site billboards as a violation of free speech.
● The Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning published the first issue of The Journal of Planning Education and Research.
130
1983
“Southern Burlington County NAACP V. Township of Mt. Laurel (Mount Laurel II)” - In a case focusing on Mt. Laurel, New Jersey, the New Jersey Supreme Court rules that all 567 municipalities in the state must build their "fair share" of affordable housing. A precedent-setting blow against racial segregation.
131
1984
Construction begins on Seaside, Florida, one of the earliest examples of the New Urbanism.
132
1986
The First National Conference on American Planning History is convened in Columbus, Ohio and leads to the founding of the Society of American City and Regional Planning History (SACRPH) the following year.
133
1987
● “First English Evangelical Lutheran Church v. County of Los Angles” – U.S. Supreme Court finds that even a temporary taking requires compensation.
● “Nolan v. California Coastal Commission” – land use restrictions must be tied directly to a specific public purpose (permit conditions requiring public access easement dedication found invalid); established rational nexus.
134
1989
The Planning Accreditation Board (PAB) is recognized by the Washington-based Council on Post-Secondary Education to be the sole accrediting agency in the field of professional planning education.
135
1991
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) - coordination between land use and transportation planning, required coordination between states and metropolitan areas for air quality, higher levels of public participation. Includes provisions for a National Scenic Byways Program and for transportation enhancements, each of which includes a historic preservation component.
136
1992
In Lucas v. South Carolina Coastal Council, the U.S. Supreme Court limits local and state governments' ability to restrict private property without compensation.
137
1993
Enterprise Zone/Empowerment Community (EZ/EC) proposal signed into law – Aims tax incentives, wage tax credits, special deductions, and low-interest financing to a limited number of impoverished urban and rural communities to jumpstart their economic and social recovery.
138
1994
● “Dolan v. City of Tigard” – a jurisdiction must show rough proportionality between the adverse impacts of a proposed development and the exactions being imposed on the developer (land dedication not related to proposed development).
● North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) among U.S., Canada and Mexico begins on January 1, its purpose to foster trade and investment among the three nations by removing or lowering non-tariff as well as tariff barriers.
139
1996
Telecommunications Act – leaves the issue of cell tower siting’s to be decided first by local land use authorities, before the courts can be involved. Preempts all local zoning authority with respect to cellular towers.
140
1999
American Institute of Certified Planners inaugurates a College of Fellows to recognize distinguished individual contributions by longer term AICP members
141
1998
Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21) - emphasized transit as an alternative to highway expansion and included new elements such as focus on safety, protection of environment, advancing economic growth and competitiveness. Also allows for flexibility in using funds for transit, alternative modes, historic preservation.
142
2000
● President Clinton Creates 8 new national monuments in 5 western states: Canyons of the Ancients (Colorado); Cascade-Siskiyou (Oregon); Hanford Reach (Washington); Ironwood Forest, Grand Canyon-Parashant, Agua Fria (Arizona); Grand Sequoia, California Coastal (California). He also expanded one existing national monument in California (Pinnacles)
● Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act (RLUIPA) passes - protects individuals, houses of worship, and other religious institutions from discrimination in zoning and landmarking laws.
143
2005
“Kelo v. City of New London” - economic development is permissible as a public use for purposes of eminent domain.
