Fundamentals of Biology Flashcards
(204 cards)
1
Q
what atoms does carbon tend to bond with in an organic molecule?
A
hydrogen
oxygen
nitrogen
2
Q
__ are molecules that contain more than one element
A
compounds
3
Q
strong attractive forces that hold atoms within a molecule
A
intramolecular forces
4
Q
force that exists between molecules
A
intermolecular forces
5
Q
do intra- or intermolecular forces determine physical properties?
A
intermolecular
6
Q
3 varieties of carbohydrates
A
monosaccharides
disaccharides
polysaccharides
7
Q
monosaccharides have a ratio of precisely __ to a water molecule, and they have the empirical formula __
A
1 carbon
(CH2O)n
8
Q
5-carbon monosaccharides are called
A
pentoses
9
Q
6-carbon monosaccharides are called
A
hexoses
10
Q
a sugar molecule is alpha if the OH group points __ on 1C
A
down
11
Q
a sugar molecule is beta if the OH group points __ on 1c
A
up
12
Q
ribose is a
A
pentose monosaccharides
13
Q
glucose and fructose are
A
hexose monosaccharides
14
Q
glucose and fructose are __ of each other
A
isomers
15
Q
what type of reactions bring monosaccharides together?
A
dehydration/condensation
16
Q
what functional groups/atoms react in a dehydration/condensation reaction?
A
hydroxyl (OH) + hydrogen (H)
17
Q
what is formed in a condensation reaction?
A
covalent bond
18
Q
what is released in a condensation reaction?
A
H2O
19
Q
what is opposite of condensation/dehydration reaction?
A
hydrolysis reaction; adds H2O to a covalent bond to split monomers apart
20
Q
bond between a carbohydrate and another molecule
A
glycosidic
21
Q
carbohydrates linked to lipids
A
glycolipids
22
Q
carbohydrates linked to proteins
A
glycoproteins
23
Q
the disaccharide __ is table sugar
A
sucrose
24
Q
disaccharide of glucose and fructose
A
sucrose
25
disaccharide of galactose and glucose
lactose
26
disaccharide of 2 glucoses
maltose
27
__ may or may not have branching
polysaccharides
28
uses of polysaccharides
storage
| structure
29
crucial storage polysaccharide in plants
starch
30
starch contains many __ monomers in linear and branched forms
glucose
31
linear plant starch
amylose
32
type of glycosidic bonds in amylose
a-1,4-glycosidic bonds (linear)
33
branched form of plant starch
amylopectin
34
type of glycosidic bonds in amylopectin
a-1,4-glycosidic (linear)
| a-1,6-glycosidic (branches)
35
storage polysaccharide found in huans
glycogen
36
monomers in glycogen
glucose
37
is amylopectin or glycogen more branched?
glycogen
38
type of glycosidic bonds in glycogen
a-1,4-glycosidic (linear)
| MANY a-1,6-glycosidic (branches)
39
which type of human tissues store glycogen?
liver (mostly)
| muscles
40
name two a-glucose polysaccharides
starch
| glycogen
41
structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls, wood, and paper
cellulose
42
cellulose is a __ polymer
glucose
43
what type of bonds does cellulose contain and what do they do?
b-1,4-glycosidic
| allow cellulose to form linear strands that pack together in parallel
44
intermolecular force that holds adjacent cellulose strands together in parallel
H bonds
45
structure of cellulose gives it high __
rigidity
46
can humans digest cellulose?
no - passes thru digestive tract as fiber
47
chitin is a __ polysaccharide
structural
48
chitin is found in __
fungal cell walls
| insect exoskeletons
49
chitin is a polysaccharide of __ monomers
N-acetylglucosamine
50
what type of bonds are in chitin?
b-1,4-glycosidic
51
chitin looks a lot like __
cellulose
52
name 2 beta-glucose polysaccharides
cellulose
| chitin
53
protein polymers
polypeptides
54
polypeptide monomers
amino acid
55
in an amino acid, what 4 things is the central carbon bonded to?
H
NH2
COOH
R
56
how many different amino acids?
20
57
amino acids in a polypeptide are linked by __ covalent bonds
peptide
58
how do aas form peptide bonds?
dehydration/condensation
59
what type of reactions separate the aas in a polypeptide?
hydrolysis
60
a peptide bond is an __ bond involving aas
amide
61
amide/peptide bonds occur between __ and __ functional groups
NH2
| COOH
62
what enzymes catalyze peptide bond formation?
peptidyl transferases
63
peptidyl transferases are __ transferases
aminoacyl
64
polypeptides have an __ and __ terminus
animo (N-)
| carboxyl (C-)
65
primary protein structure
primary
66
all proteins have __ structure
primary
67
secondary protein strucutre
3D shape from intermolecular forces between the polypeptide backbone
68
the __ is the amino acid structural features other than the R-group
polypeptide backbone
69
does secondary structure include interactions between R-group atoms?
no
70
which level of protein structure includes alpha helix and beta sheet?
secondary
71
most common type of intermolecular force for secondary structure
H-bonds
72
tertiary protein structure
3D protein structure due to non-covalent interactions between aa R-groups
73
common interactions between R-groups in tertiary strucutre
```
ionic
hydrogen
dipole-dipole
van der Waal
hydrophobic
disulfide
```
74
"covalent exception in tertiary structure"
disulfide bonds
75
aas that cause disulfide bond formation
cysteine
76
quaternary protein structure
3D structure from grouping of 2 or more separate polypeptides
77
while there are multiple polypeptide chains in quaternary structure, they function as __
1 protein
78
3 structural classifications of proteins
fibrous
globular
intermediate
79
solubility of fibrous structural proteins
insoluble
80
fibrous structural proteins are long polymer __
fibers/sheets
81
__ form the structural components of cells
fibrous structural proteins
82
example of fibrous structural protein
collagen
83
solubility of globular structural proteins
soluble
84
__ structural proteins are folded tightly and perform many functions
globular
85
example of globular structural protein
albumin
86
solubility of intermediate structural proteins
soluble
87
__ structural proteins are fiber-shaped and perform many functions
intermediate
88
example of intermediate structural protein
fibrinogen
89
2 compositional protein classifications
simple
| conjugated
90
simple protein compositions contain only __
amino acids
91
conjugated protein compositions contain __
amino acids + non-protein components
92
examples of conjugated proteins
glycoproteins (mucin)
metalloproteins (hemoglobin)
lipoproteins (LDL/HDL)
93
__ causes proteins to lose their secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures
protein denaturation
94
denatured proteins retain their __ structure
primary
95
loss of __ leads to a loss of protein function
shape
96
causes of protein denaturation
excess temperature
chemicals
pH change
radiation
97
__ are molecules that increase reaction rates
catalysts
98
despite speeding up reactions, catalysts do not affect the __ of a reaction
spontaneity
99
__ are not used up by the reactions they manipulate; the reaction does not change them
catalysts
100
catalysts lower __ to speed reactions
activation energies
101
catalysts do not affect the energy of __ or __
reactants
| products
102
enzymes
biological, globular protein (usually) catalysts
103
substrates bind to enzymes at the __
active site
104
are all enzymes proteins
no
| ex. ribozymes
105
active sites have unique properties and __
substrate specificity
106
measures how efficient an enzyme is in converting substrate to product
specificity constant
107
enzymes bind at the active site via the __ fit model
induced
108
non-protein molecules that assist enzymes
cofactors
109
cofactors usually help enzymes by donating/accepting some reaction component, like __
electrons
110
what are organic cofactors?
coenzymes
| ex. vitamins
111
inorganic cofactors are usually __
metal ions
112
enzymes that are bound to their cofactor
holoenzymes
113
an enzyme that is not bound to its cofactor
apoenzyme
114
cofactors that tightly/covalently bind to their enzyme are known as __
prosthetic groups
115
enzyme efficiency is determined by __ and __
temperature
| pH
116
enzyme regulation where inhibitors compete with substrates for active sites
competitive inhibition
117
we can outcompete a competitive inhibitor by adding more __
substrate
118
what is enzyme saturation?
all active sites are occupied
119
when an inhibitor binds to the allosteric site
noncompetitive inhibition
120
a different location that is not the active site of enzyme catalysis
allosteric site
121
a noncompetitive inhibitor binding to the allosteric site modifies the __ so that the substrate has reduced binding or cannot bind
active site
122
enzymes that have both an active site and an allosteric site
allosteric enzymes
123
a molecule that binds to an enzyme at a site other than the active site and affects its activity
allosteric effector
124
we cannot __ allosteric inhibitors by adding more substrate
outcompete
125
the rate of enzyme catalysis is unaffected by increasing the substrate concentration in __
noncompetitive inhibition
126
substrate concentration at 1/2Vmax
Michaelis Constant (Km)
127
a __ Km indicates that Vmax is reached at low substrate concentrations
small
128
a __ Km indicates that Vmax is reached at high substrate concentrations
large
129
in competitive inhibition, Km is raised but Vmax __
remains the same
130
in noncompetitive inhibition, Km stays the same but Vmax
is lowered
131
lipids are __, non-polar molecules
hydrophobic
132
functions of lipids
store energy
insulation
cell membranes
endocrine lipids
133
components of a triglyceride
three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone
134
specialized fat cells that house triglycerides
adipocytes
135
triglycerides are produced by __ reactions
dehydration/condensation
136
which groups of which molecules react to form a triglyceride?
glycerol (H)
137
what type of bonds exist between glycerol/fatty acids in a triglyceride?
ester
138
addition of H2O to a triglyceride's esters will break the fatty acids off the glycerol backbone by a __ reaction
hydrolysis
139
fatty acids with no double bonds
saturated
140
saturated fatty acids form __, __ chains
straight
| stacked
141
saturated fatty acids tend to be __ at room temp
solid
142
fatty acids with 1 or more double bonds
unsaturated
143
fatty acids with 1 double bond
monounsaturated
144
fatty acids with 2 or more double bonds
2 or more
145
cis-unsaturated fatty acids create __ in the fatty acid chain, so...
kinks
| they do not pack tightly
146
cis-unsaturated fats tend to be __ at room temp
liquid
147
trans-unsaturated fatty acids pack together __, and are very bad for health
tightly
148
unique type of lipid in cell membranes
phospholipids
149
components of a phospholipid
2 fatty acids and 1 phosphate group attached to glycerol backbone
150
amphipathic
having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties
| ex. phosopholipids
151
like phospholipids but with a carbohydrate group rather than a phosphate group
glycolipids
152
cell membranes form through __ of phospholipids
self-assembly
153
another class of lipid that makes up 30-50% of a eukaryotic cell membrane
cholesterol
154
cholesterol contains __ hydrocarbon rings and is also amphipathic
four
155
factors that modulate membrane fluidity
temperature
cholesterol
degree of unsaturation in phospholipid fatty acid tails
156
what maintains membrane fluidity in the cold?
increasing phospholipid unsaturation
| cholesterol
157
what maintains membrane fluidity in the heat
decreasing phospholipid unsaturation
| cholesterol
158
the __ makes cholesterol, and we can also get it from the __
liver
| diet
159
cholesterol is a precursor to vitamin __ and __ acids
D
| bile
160
__ is a precursor to steroids
cholesterol
161
general structure of a steroid
fused 4 ring structure - 3 cyclohexanes and 1 cyclopentane
162
__ are used as hormones and are a structural component of membranes (cholesterol)
steroids
163
lipids are insoluble and must be transported through the blood by __
lipoproteins
164
lipoproteins contain a __ of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins
coat
165
lipoproteins contains a __ that contains more cholesterol and triglycerides
lipid core
166
low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
have a low density of proteins are are generally considered unhealthy
167
high-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
have a high density of proteins and are generally considered healthy
168
waxes and carotenoids are __ derivatives
lipid
169
esters of fatty acids and monohydroxy alcohols
waxes
170
waxes are used as a __, protective coating
hydrophobic
171
carotenoid structure
fatty acid carbon chains with conjugated double bonds and 6-membered rings at each end
172
carotenoid function
pigments
| produce colors in plants and animals
173
2 common nucleic acids
DNA
| RNA
174
__ have a pentose sugar attached to a nitrogenous base
nucleosides
175
__ a pentose sugar attached to a nitrogenous base and a single phosphate group
nucleotide
176
nucleic acids are polymers made of __
nucleotides
177
nucleoside diphosphate
sugar
base
2 phosphates
178
nucleoside triphosphate
sugar
base
3 phosphates
179
4 possible bases of DNA nucleotide
adenine
thymine
cytosine
guanine
180
4 possible bases of RNA nucleotide
adenine
uracil
cytosine
guanine
181
purine
base with 2 rings
182
pyrimidine
base with 1 ring
183
adenine and guanine have 2 rings and are classified as __
purines
184
cytosine, uracil, and thymine have 1 ring and are classified as __
pyrimidines
185
__ nucleotides have ribose sugars with a hydroxyl on the 2' carbon
RNA
186
__ nucleotides have deoxyribose sugars without a hydroxyl on the 2' carbon
DNA
187
RNA is more reactive than DNA because of its
2' OH
188
__ groups attach to the nucleotide sugar at the 5' C
phosphate
189
5' __ of one nucleotide connects to the 3' __ of another nucleotide in nucleic acids
phosphate
| OH
190
bonding between 5' phosphate and a 3' hydroxyl creates a __ bond in nucleic acids
phosphodiester
191
nucleic acids have __, with a 5' and 3' end
directionality
192
__ add to growing nucleic acid polymers by losing two phosphates (as __)
nucleoside triphosphates
| pyrophosphate
193
DNA manifests as a __, __ helix
antiparallel
| double-stranded
194
A and T (or U) pair via __ hydrogen bonds
2
195
C and G pair via __ H bonds
3
196
RNA is usually __ stranded
single
197
3 fundamental statements of cell theory
all lifeforms have 1 or more cells
cells are the most simple unit of life
cells come from other cells
198
does cell theory apply to viruses?
no - they are not living cells
199
central dogma of genetics
information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins
200
exception to the central dogma are __
prions
201
prions
mis-folded proteins that cause other proteins to mis-fold
202
what is the hypothesis for the creation of the first cell as we know it?
RNA world
203
RNA world hypothesis
self-replicating RNA molecules were the precursor to modern life
204
2 central facts that support RNA world hypothesis
RNA is able to store genetic info like DNA
| RNA is able to catalyze chemical reactions like proteins
