fungi and invertebrates

Question 1

describe fungi

Answer 1

are one of the oldest and largest monophyletic kingdoms.
-ancestor resembled unicellular, flagellated choanoflagellates.
-were one of the first organisms to exploit land.

Question 2

created a suitable environment for the evolution of plants. How?

Answer 2

also phloem tissue of plants. doesn’t need to search for food, but most fungus do

Question 3

are more closely related to animals than plants. How?

Answer 3

Animal fungi plants
heterotroph Heterotrophs (decomposes) photoautotroph
Glycogen (food stores) Glycogen (food stores) Starch (food stores)
Exoskeleton: chitin (insects, crustaceans Cell wall: chitin Cell wall: cellulose

Question 4

fungi are mainly multicellular eukaryotes. Exception?

Answer 4

yeast is a unicellular fungus. were once multicellular, but became unicellular because of where they are found. found in areas with lots of nutrients. find on fruit, vaginal tracts, fermenting fruits

Question 5

what are fungi made of?

the structure

Answer 5

Fungi are composed of thin, cylindrical structures
called hyphae.

Question 6

cell wall of fungi vs cell wall of bacteria

Answer 6

have protective cell walls made of a nitrogen containing polysaccharides called chitin.

bacteria have cell walls made of peptidoglycan

Bacteria cell walls vs chitin in fungal cell walls. Hydrogen bonds between chitin, easeir to break down. Peptidoglycan hard to break because of covalent bonds

Question 7

what is the undeground structure of fungi called and why does it grow the way it does?

Answer 7

Mycelium grows a lot to decompose dead matter and get food. It decomposes dead leaves and rats. Mycelium has a large surface area, so it can produce more enzymes. These enzymes use food to externally digest. This releases nutrients, which the mycelium then absorbs. Fungus is underground and very extensive.

Question 8

why are the reproductive structures of fungi temporary?

Answer 8

because they tend to sprout in favourable conditions (after rain there is lots)

Question 9

what is coenocytic hyphae?

Answer 9

“continuous” cytoplasmic mass. No separation btw the hyphae. Does mitosis. Lacks cytokinesis so cells don’t separate from each other. Allows for easier transport. Easier growth. Faster growth. Makes it a more efficient hunter. Saves energy by not making cross walls, all that energy goes into growth instead

-the issue is that most of the nucleuses could end up at the tip, not a lot in the rest, not good

Question 10

septate hyphae. Why are they more advanced

Answer 10

there is separation that happens between the nuclei. Has wholes where nutrients can still go across. Only stops nucleus from groing through cross-walls. The advantage of cross walls is that they can cut off part if a portion of it is infected. Bacteria is limited to how much it can affect fungus.

If there is a cut in the cross wall, limits the amount of damage in the other one, no way of cutting off cyoplasmic flow.

-crosswalls make it less likeley to collapse. when it’s being stepped on

-nucleus equally spaced apart

Question 11

how are fungi classfied?

Answer 11

They all have mycota in the name

Question 12

which fungi are the most advanced. Why?

Answer 12

Basidiomycota and Ascomycota because of their multicellular sexual reproductive structures

Question 13

are septate hyphae analogous or homologous

Answer 13

homologous because on tree (slide 3) found in common ancestor

Question 14

are basidiocarps and ascocarps analogous or homologous?Why?

Answer 14

analogous because evolved independently due to convergent evolution

Question 15

describe Zygomycota and give an example?

Answer 15

develop coenocytic hyphae

an example is Rhizopus (black bread mold)

Choose sexual reproduction in unfavourable environment, this makes offspring genetically diverse and some of them survive

Question 16

how do Zygomycota sexually reproduce

Answer 16

the tips of negtive and positive mating types. (attract each other via pheromones) swell up when they meet. This is calles plasmogamy which meand “cytoplasm” together

Then creat protective wall.

They reproduce via zygosporangium (which is dormant until in a favourable nevironment)

Question 17

plasmogamy vs karyogamy in zygomycota

Answer 17

plasmogamy is the fusion of two parent fungi that brings 2 nuclei together, but doesn’t fuse (n+n)

karyogamy is the fusion of the two haploid nuclei in the cell that resulted from plasmogamy. This forms a diploid nucleus, which contains two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

Question 18

what are the 3 stages of sexual reproduction in fungi

Answer 18

1. Plasmogamy: The fusion of the protoplasts
2. Karyogamy: The fusion of the nuclei
3. Meiosis: The division of the diploid nucleus to reduce the chromosome number to one set per cell

Question 19

what are asci, ascocarps and ascospores? (Ascomycota)

Answer 19

Asci: These are specialized sac-like structures where meiosis occurs. They are formed during the sexual reproduction phase of ascomycete fungi. Each ascus typically contains eight ascospores, although the number can vary in some species.

Ascocarps: These are the fruiting bodies, where asci are produced. The structure of the ascocarp can influence how spores are released into the environment.

Ascospores: These are the spores produced within the asci. After the asci mature, they release the ascospores, which can then germinate to form new fungal individuals. The release of ascospores often occurs when the asci burst or when the ascocarp is disturbed.

Question 19

describe life cycle of ascomycota

Answer 19

1.Plasmogamy: The process begins when two compatible fungal hyphae fuse, leading to the formation of a dikaryotic mycelium (with two nuclei).

2.Karyogamy: The nuclei eventually fuse to form a diploid nucleus.

3.Meiosis: This diploid nucleus undergoes meiosis, producing four haploid nuclei.

4.Mitosis: Each haploid nucleus may then undergo mitotic division, resulting in a total of eight nuclei.

5.Formation of Asci: The eight nuclei are enclosed within the asci, and the asci are developed within the ascocarp.

6.Release of Ascospores: Once mature, the asci release the ascospores into the environment, where they can disperse and germinate under suitable conditions.

Question 20

what phylum is orange peel cup fungus in and morel in?

Answer 20

ascomycota

Question 21

what phylum are truffle and yeast in?

Answer 21

ascomycota

Question 22

true or false basidomycota reproduce asexually

Answer 22

false, they don’t do that

Question 23

what are basidia, basidiocarp and basidiospores?

Answer 23

Basidia are specialized club-shaped structures where sexual reproduction occurs. Each basidium typically produces four basidiospores. They are formed on the surface of the basidiocarp.

basidiocarps are the fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi. They can take various forms, such as mushrooms, puffballs, or bracket fungi. The basidiocarp contains the basidia and is responsible for producing and releasing basidiospores.

Basidiospores are the spores produced by basidia. After maturation, they are released into the environment and can germinate to form new mycelium.

Question 24

describe the lifecycle of Basidiomycota

Answer 24

1. Plasmogamy: The process starts with the fusion of two compatible haploid hyphae from different mating types. This fusion leads to the formation of a dikaryotic mycelium (with two distinct nuclei). 2. Karyogamy: In the basidia, the two nuclei from the dikaryotic mycelium eventually fuse, resulting in a diploid nucleus. 3. Meiosis: The diploid nucleus undergoes meiosis, producing four haploid nuclei. 4. Formation of Basidia: Each haploid nucleus migrates into a developing basidium, where it becomes enclosed, leading to the formation of four basidiospores. 5. Maturation and Release of Basidiospores: The basidiospores mature and are released from the basidia, typically through a process that involves the swelling and elongation of structures called sterigmata that connect the basidiospores to the basidia. 6.Dispersal and Germination: Once released, the basidiospores can disperse into the environment and, under favorable conditions, germinate to form new hyphae and begin the life cycle anew.

Question 25

what phyla are shelf fungus and netted stinkhorn fungus in?

Answer 25

basidiomycota

Question 26

what phyla are birds nest fungi and puffballs in?

Answer 26

basidiomycota

Question 27

what is ergots

Answer 27

purple ascomycete structures that infect rye. these can make people very sick when flour is made out of them because the fungus produces a toxin. Get psychosis like symptoms, hallucinogenic mild version given to reduce excessive bleeding during childbirth. LSD

Question 28

Ringworm and athletes' foot. Why is it difficult to treat?

Answer 28

caused by ascomycota that feed on dead cells and perspiration. Happens when not washing feet properly in public spaces ingworm is hard to get rid of because on the surface of the skin. Outer layers of skin, don't get oxygen and nutrients from blood vessels, so your immune system can't get to it. Fungi are eakaryotes and so are we. So we get major side effects when taking medications.

Question 29

what are cordyceps

Answer 29

Sporangia produces, spores are released. Chances chemical structure of brain. Climb to highest place possible, cling onto branch and then the spores spread from there. They kill the ant that is a zombie. Cordyceps erupt from body. Protect diversity so that no insects overtake any other organism.

Question 30

give 3 reasons why fungi are ecologically important.

Answer 30

Are the main decomposers on land because bacteria just wait for food, while fungi hunt decomposing materials 2. form symbiotic relationships with plant roots called mycorrhizal. Arbuscules: tree-like network of hyphae. Coenocytic hyphae Plasma membrane is intact, so can continuously absorb nutrients from plant cell without killing it. Fungus gives sugar and oxygen. Not parasitic because fungues delivers minerals from far distances and supplies plant with potassium, nitrogen, phosphate. Gets things from super far. Mutualistic symbiotic relationship 90% of plants have this symbiotic relationship. Without it, plants do pretty poorly. All plants in given area connected via mycelium. Also allows plants to communicate. Like wifi or internet. Plants can also poison each other through fungi. 3. From symbitoic relationships with either algae or cyanobacteria. Called lichens (combination of fungus and either algae or cyanobacteria) Algae produces sugar and oxy to give to fungus, fungus protects it (liitle house) Cyanobacteria also does nitrogen fixation to turn into ammonia or Nitrates. (NH3, NO3) fungus uses nitrogen and ommonia to make chitin

Question 31

what kind of drugs do fungi produce

Answer 31

peptidoglycan. Enzyme turned off, so cell wall of bacteria become very weak. Wall protects against too much water going into the cell. When cell wall is weak, water enters and pops the cells (bursts) Cyclosporine. Used to prevent your body rejecting an organ. Does this by reducing your immune system until organ is accepted Fumagilin is used against cancer cells. Prevents the spread of cancer cells. Prevents metastasis (the spreading of cancer cells). Reduces spread from one part of body to antoher. Reduces blood vessel formation and therefore prevents the spread of cancer cells

Question 32

how are fungi important in the food industry

Answer 32

1. yeasts make bread fluffy and make alcohol 2. Morels and truffles are used for their nutty, cheesy taste. Ø Fungi are responsible for the colors and flavors of cheese, soy sauce, sake, rice vinegar, and miso.

Question 33

describe animals

Answer 33

are multicellular, heterotrophic eukaryotes that are mobile at some stage of their life cycle. Ø had ancestors that resembled filter-feeding protists called choanoflagellates

Question 34

what are choanoflagellates

Answer 34

has flagella and microvilli (thing that looks like a skirt) Microvili covered in mucus that catches small organisms that they feed on. We think our ancestors resemble them for many reasons -has a nucleus, so eukaryotic -heterotrophic (filter feeder -moves These characteristic make it very similar to animals the only thing is that it is a protist because it is unicellular

Question 35

how did animals survive and support themselves on land

Answer 35

WE successful on land because of the exoskeleton. Provides support (for grvaity), prevents water loss

Question 36

why do animals form a monophyletic group

Answer 36

because they all share a common ancestor

Question 37

what is the outgroup for animals? ON EXAM

Answer 37

Choanoflagellates are the outgroup because unicellular is setting them apart.

Question 38

which animal is the most primative?

Answer 38

porifera are the most primative because they don't have tissues

Question 39

describe porifera

Answer 39

have lots of pores. water goes in through sides and out through top (called osculum). Has choanocytes. The flagellum brings in water through sides and pushes it out through the top. The sticky mucus in the mocrovilli traps organisms

Question 40

what are some reasoned why porifer are primative animals

Answer 40

Ø are filter-feeders. Explain. Designed to trap microscopic ogrs from water and digest them.. Choancoyte explels food and the amoebocyte pics up the food using pseudopods. Ameoba can change its shape using psedopods. Ameobocyte is like uber eats. Pick up food from choanocyte and delivers it to other cells More advanced animals feed on larger prey Ø have specialized cells, such as choanocytes and amoebocytes, but no tissues or organs. Explain. "primative" Ø are stationary as adults - larvae are mobile. Explain. Doesn't move around like most animals. Juvenile form is called amphiblastula. Has flagella that helps it propel itself from the adult form. Disperse themselves to reduce competition. Classified as animal because miobile at some point in it's life

Question 41

how are cnideria different than most animals. radial symmetry vs bilateral symmetry

Answer 41

Cnidaria are different than most animals because they have radial symmetry. As long as you down the center, you will get equal halves. Based on outside. Bilteral symmetry allows fish to be more dynaic.

Question 42

which phyla are animals most closely related to?

Answer 42

We are most close to echinodermata because we have common ancestor that was a deuterostome

Question 43

describe common features of cnideria

Answer 43

1. gastrovascular cavity 2. tissues but no organs 3. cnidocytes that contains nematocytes 4. radial symmetry 5,two body from - medusa, polyps

Question 44

describe the advantages and disadvantages of a gastrovascular cavity

Answer 44

(this is the hollow sac in the "head" of jellyfish. It acts like the stomach because it carries out digestion. All the nutrients from digestion are transported to all the cells in the jelly. Difuse to all surrounding cells. Better than porifera because can now eat larger animals disadvantage is that they can't continuously eat like we can.

Question 44

how do cnideria have tissues but no organs

Answer 44

Tissues = group of cells that work together to carry out certain function. They have msucle tissue and nervous tssue. Nervous tissue helps coordinate muscle contractions. They wait for food to come to them

Question 45

what are the functions of cnidocytes that contain nematocyts

Answer 45

"cnideria" "cells" inside they have a coiled up harpoon. Has a trigger that shoots out the harpoon. Projection. Nematocyt is the harpoon. "sting" sac" can sting and paralyze prey. Cut and inject poison at same time.

Question 46

what is the advantage of radial symmetry in chnideria

Answer 46

Nematocytes are always around. Creates zone where nothing can get close to them and cath all fish In their surroundinds more "advanced" feature

Question 47

what are the two body forms of cnideria

Answer 47

Ømedusa. Explain. When the mouth point downwards and jelly is mobile (bobbing up and down) umbrella shaped. Like when sponegbob tries to catch them Ø polyps. Explain it’s a sea anemone. Or polyp. They have an outer body covering made of calcium carbonate that provides them with and exocskeleton that gives protection. Coral reefs are build on skeletons of sea anemones hydra is a sea anemone w/o the exoskeleton since they don't have a heart and brain. This allows them to survive better

Question 48

describe annelidia

Answer 48

Crop is food compartment. Grinding and ezymatic activity happens in gizzard. Nephridium is like backup kidney. Clitellium s flat ring part. Imporant for sexual reproduction. Are hermaphrodite which have both ovaries and testes. Secretes mucus to attatche together and allows for sperm to travel. Prevents sprem from drying out. Clitellum is specialization. They are hermaphrodite because rarley meet with another earthworm, so need to reproduce asexually

Question 49

describe the ring like body structues of annelidia

Answer 49

It creates repetitive organs, many hearts and many nephridia. Locomotion become more precise because very segment has its own set of muscles. Depending on where muscle contracts can move in certain direction. Segmentation allows for specialization Nematodes don't have segmentation, so ca't turn the same way an annelid does

Question 50

why is body segmentation considered to be an advanced feature

Answer 50

It allows to have different function in deifferent sections and in earthworm helps with movements

Question 51

Why are is phylum mollusca closely related to annelids?

Answer 51

Because of their larval form; that's why they're closely related. Trochophors - have ring of cilia around waist region. Use it to disperse and swim away from adult form. Tuberowrm and squid also have this. Reason is because their ancestor has trochophore larvae

Question 52

what are features that all mollusks have?

Answer 52

1. visceral mass is the internal organs 2. mantle that is the membrane covering viscerla mass 3. foot that is a muscular extension 4. some have backwards pointing chitin teeth on tongue called radula

Question 53

what is the visceral mass in mollusks

Answer 53

the internal organs

Question 54

describe the mantle in mollusks

Answer 54

Has to do with circulatory system. An open circulatory system. Blood spills out fo blood vessels and surrounds ora=gans, so everything is soaked in blood. The shell reduces chances of a cut. IF it has a shell it has an open circulatory system. Octopus and squid have closed circulatory system

Question 55

what is the function of foot in mollusks

Answer 55

Helps with locomotion, but also attatches them to the rock. Specialized foot is tentacle of octopus

Question 56

describe backwards pointing teeth in mollusks

Answer 56

made of chitin, not in jaws, but on the tongue. Uses it to rasp algae off rocks. Like drilling tool to get through shell. A clam will not need a radula because it is filter feeder. Only needed if eating vegetation or meat.

Question 57

why has chitin evolved in a lot of animals and fungi

Answer 57

because of convergent evolution.

Question 58

what are Platyhelminthes? What species concept are they organized by?

Answer 58

flatworms. The morphological species concept

Question 59

what are the 4 examples of mollusks

Answer 59

scallop, blue-ringed octopus, giant squid, and elysia chlorotica slug

Question 60

what kind of Platyhelminthes is parasitic? describe it

Answer 60

the tapeworm. It has retractable hooks. Absorbs food across it's skin; food that you have digested. Can reach 20 meters in length to the point where it can block your intestinal tract. Looks like annelids, but not annelid. Segemnts break off and not part of body segments. Are the reproductive sgements. Life cycle depends on these segments. Poop it out and get's into other animal through food or water, then lives there

Question 61

Platyhelminthes are acoelomates. Explain

Answer 61

no body cavity" no fluid space, just solid tissue. We have fluid filled cavity called coelem. Considered primative because of this. Disadvantage because has nothing to absorb shock. Can damage vital organs. Also not as good at diffusion and gas exchange. Diffusion is not happening easily because have to go through all these cells to the edges of the body.

Question 62

Platyhelminthes have no circulatory system. How are nutrients distributed?

Answer 62

Have gastrovascular cavity that is highly branched. Only one opening in gastrovascular cavity. Food in and out through same holw. Heavily dependant on diffsion. Can't be large animal because limited by how much diffusion would take place. LIMITS SIZE. Gastrovascular cavity is branched to help with diffusion. Diffusion happens across gastrovasculatr cavity. In tapeworm diffused through skin, but since flat reduces diffusion distance.

Question 63

planarians are hermaphrodites. Explain

Answer 63

They produce both eggs and sperm. So both testes and ovaries. They are found in each segment in tapeworm. Less genetic variation, but meiosis, indpendent assortment and cross over causes some genetic variation. Only way to reproduce because never come ascroos another tapeworm Planarian does come across other planarians (in ocean) have sex. Have 2 shaprp daggery things coming out of cest that are penises. Have this because. Because it's better to be a guy because don't have to care for eggs and babies. Whoever gets stabbed fist become fema

Question 64

what are nematoda?

Answer 64

closely related to arthropoda. Have recent common ancestor and have an exoskeleton. Different than platyhelminthes because are round womsd. Have a digestive tract and coelom (fluid filled space) around digestive tract.

Question 65

nematoda have an exoskeleton made of mainly proteins and chitin. How do they grow?

Answer 65

Gives it a layer of protection (exoskeleton) eolved thorugh convergent evolution. Downside is that it's hard to grow so it has to molt. This is when it sheds the exoskeleton, swell up and then secrete new exoskeleton made of proteins and chitin. New exoskeleton is soft and expends a lot of energy

Question 66

nematoda do not have a circulatory system. How are nutrients distributed?

Answer 66

No heart or blood vessels. Nutrients diffuse across lining of digestive tract and coelom and then every one of the cells. This limits the size of nematode. 99% are microscopi

Question 67

why are Nematoda ecologically important?

Answer 67

Because most abundant animal on the planet, just microscopic and we don't see them. Live in leaves. They are decomposing everything on ground and even decompose the decomposers (bacteria and fungi). Digest them and poop. The fecal material put nutrients back into the soil. Puts nitrogen back into soil so it can be used by other organisms Has to do with numbers. Fungi are important because hunters but these are important because of sheer numbers.

Question 68

what disease do Nematoda cause and how is it treated?

Answer 68

elephantiasis. How does the parasite spread? Symptoms? "abnormal condition of swelling" swell up in size because of nematodes. Scotom not testes grows in size. There is no circulation of fluid so vulnerable to infection and fluid loss. Needs poles to walk through the jungle. Got it through mosquitos. Nematode injected into bloodstream and started dividing and eventually blocked off major blood vessels including the lymph nodes. Lymph nodes designed to trap microbes and drain excess fluids. The nematodes start to block the lymph nodes and as a result, fluid don't circulate as well as before, fluid builds up in arms and legs and creates major problems. Treament using antibiotics, even though eukaryotes. Some side effects. Could massage him, could use compression stockings. Also diuretics, so he pees more and gets rid of excess fluids. Puts lots of stress on kidneys and heart.

Question 69

describe phylum anthropoda

Answer 69

biggest group of invertebrates. Incredibly diverse. Owe their success to their exoskeleton. Instead of having protein and chitin, also have calium carbonate that makes their shells even harder to break

Question 70

why are anthropods closely related to nematodes?

Answer 70

they both molt due to exoskeleton that is composed of chitin

Question 71

what are anthrodpoda exoskeletons made of and what are the advantages and disadvantages

Answer 71

composed of chitin, protein and calcium carbonate. Advantages? Disadvantages? Put as many joints as possible to increase flexibility. Joints in their antenna, joints in abdomen and penis. Become less vulnerable to predators and infection. Males them less vulnerable to water loss. First animal on land was probably and arthropod. Probably looked like scorpion. If they want to grow they have to go through molting. Takes lots of energy and makes you very vulnerable temporarily. HAVE OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. Have blood in body cavity

Question 72

what are echinodermata?

Answer 72

starfish (they have internal skeletons)

Question 73

have protective spines peircing through their skin. Explain?

Answer 73

Spoke through skin providing protection from above. Have penta radial symmetry. Have five arms.

Question 74

explain the pentaradial symmetry of echinodermata

Answer 74

have pentaradial symmetry even though their larvae and ancestors had bilaterally symmetrical. Explain. In each arm they have 2 digestive glands so 10 digestive glands. Have 10 reproductive organs 10 in each arm. Pentaradial symmetry internally. Their larvae form has bilateral symmetry. Call it a dipleural larvae. Attaches to rock and then grows into adult

Question 75

explain the water vascular sytem of star fish

Answer 75

water vascular system that consists of a madreporite, a series of channels, and tube feet. Functions? "sea water transport" use sea water to transport nutrients and oxygen. Sea water comes in through madreporite. "area holes" allows sea water to enter and exit seastar. Tube feet are dead ends. Ampulla purmp water. Use it to move, pull themselevs forwards. Contract amulla feets extens, attatches and sea water goes back to ampulla and then it moves. Also used for feeding. Use tube feet to grab shell, pry it open and then turn stomach inside out and put it into the shell. Carry out external brekdown like fungi using enzyems. They have hige digestive glands. Were on the verge of extinction because bring environment into themselves. Very vulnerable to pollution. Rely a lot on madreporitis which can be easily blocjed

Question 76

why are star fish some of our closest relatives

Answer 76

Why because they are deuterostomes. Mouth develops second, anus develops first. Can also say they have a complex vascular system. We both have endoskeleton Endoskeleton is beneath the skin and spines poke out

Question 77

what are some of the examples of anthropods

Answer 77

dung beetle, scorpion, pistol shrimp and centipedes

Question 78

what are some examples of echinoderms

Answer 78

brittle star, sea cucumber, sea urchin and sand dollar