Gender Flashcards
(153 cards)
1
Q
When is sex assigned
A
Conception
2
Q
What are the 2 chromosome combinations for male and female
A
Male - XY, Female - XX
3
Q
What is gender based on
A
Psychological or behavioural traits
4
Q
What are stereotypes
A
Expecations
5
Q
What is gender measured using
A
Bem scale
6
Q
Bem scale overview
A
Sandra Bem, (1974) - 7 point scale, 60 characteristics, 2 dimension scale, 20 m, 20 n and 20 f traits
7
Q
What are the 4 categories of the Bem scale
A
Male, female, androgynous or undifferentiated
8
Q
How to get an androgynous result - Bem scale
A
High male and female traits
9
Q
How to get an undifferentiated result - Bem scale
A
Low male and female traits
10
Q
What did Sandra Bem’s argue about androgynous people
A
Most psychologically healthy, high self esteem and better relationships
11
Q
4 limitations of the Bem scale
A
Adams and Sherer (1985), temporal validity, oversimplifies gender identity, Western sample
12
Q
2 strengths of the Bem scale
A
Test-retest reliability, positive social change
13
Q
Adams and Sherer (1985) as a limitation of the Bem scale
A
101 undergraduates, BSRI, masculine showed more asseritveness and self-efficacy, contradicts androgynous is most well adjusted and says its men
14
Q
Limitation of Adams and Sherer (1985) (issues and debates)
A
Male dominated society so people with mascule traits thrive more
15
Q
Test-retest as strength of the Bem scale
A
High test-retest reliability so consisent over time
16
Q
Temporal validity as a limitation of the Bem scale
A
Made 40 years ago , traits and how they were categorised may no longer reflect femininity or masculinity in modern society
17
Q
Positive social change as a strength of the Bem scale
A
Shows gender and sex as different, shows androgyny as positive, reduces discrimination
18
Q
Oversimplifies gender identity as a limitation of the Bem scale
A
We act differently in different social interaction or different relationships, can’t judge it based off of one scenario
19
Q
Western sample as a limitation of the Bem scale
A
Established with Western sample, not generalisable
20
Q
Limitation of sex role stereotypes as a cause for gendered behaviour
A
Lacks temporal validity
21
Q
Temporal validity as a limitation of sex-role stereotypes
A
There is now less focus on encouraging children to preform gendered behaviour and a wider choice of gender neutral stuff, so the theory is less relevant
22
Q
2 research supports of sex role stereotypes as a cause for gendered behaviour
A
Smith and Lloyd (1978) and Mead (1935)
23
Q
Smith and Lloyd (1978) study
A
32 new mothers played with strangers 6 month old babies, babies dressed gender appropriately or cross-sex clothes, range of gendered or neutral toys available, male toys given to male appearing babies and vice versa, gendered behaviour encouraging, boys = active, shows adults do hold sex role stereotypes, differential reinforcement is based off stereotypes
24
Q
Mead (1935) - sex role stereotypes study premise
A
Completed anthropological research on 3 tribal societies
25
Mead (1935) - sex role stereotypes study findings
1 - both genders displayed male traits, aggressive behaviours, 2 - both genders displayed female, caring behaviour, 3 - females were dominant, males were emotional/responsible for caring for children
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Mead (1935) - sex role stereotypes study conclusion
Gender behaviour is learnt through socialisation and the social learning process, not innate biology, supports that cultural forces are responsible for gender stereotypes
27
Issues and debates regarding sex-role stereotypes
Holding rigid sex-role stereotypes leads to problems in society, gendered expecatiations = discrimination, so understanding can cause positive social change such as better hiring policies
28
How many chromosomes do humans have
46 / 23 pairs
29
What does the Y chromosome do
Develop testes, produce androgens (male sex hormones)
30
What is testerosterone and what does it do
Androgen, 10x more likely in men, develop secondary sexual characteristics (muscles), linked to higher levels of aggression
31
What is oestrogen and what does it do
More in women, menstrual cycle, secondary sexual characteristics, higher levels after giving birth, linked to maternal cargiving, lower levels linked to irritability
32
What is oxytocin and what does it do
More in females, stimulates lactation and lowers cortisol levels, linked to being caring and to attachment
33
4 strengths of the role of chromosomes and hormones
Van Beijsterveldt (2006), Theisen (2019), Animal research, Clinical treatments
34
Van Beijsterveldt (2006) study premise
Compared gender identity data, 8000 pairs of twins (DZ + MZ), longitudinal twin study, Netherlands,
35
Van Beijsterveldt (2006) study findings and conclusion
Girls with female co-twins are more likely to show cross gender behaviour than with male co-twins, 70% of variance in gender identity is due to genetic factors, so atypical gender identity is biological not psychological
36
Theisen (2019) study premise
Compared genomes fo 13 transgender to 88 control,
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Theisen (2019) study findings
21 gene variations associated with oestrogen reception in areas of brain shown to become sexually dimorphic before birth
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Theisen (2019) study conclusions
Sex hormone exposure before birth results in sexually dimorphic brain development, contributes to gender dysphoria
39
Animal research regarding role of chromosomes and hormones - oestrogen and oxytocin
Female rats stopped displaying caring behaviour to their babies when given a drug to stop oxytocin and oestrogen
40
Animal research regarding role of chromosomes and hormones - testosterone
Male castrated mice reduced aggressive biting, returned to normal when injected with testosterone, female mice increased in aggressive biting after testosterone injections
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Animal research regarding role of chromosomes and hormones - conclusion
Hormonal changes result in changes to sex based behaviour
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Animal research regarding role of chromosomes and hormones - issues and debates
Animal studies can't be generalised but it's unethical to do to humans
43
Clinincal treatments as a strength of the role of chromosomes and hormones
Understanding of influence of hormones aids the development of hormonal clinical treatments for parenting disorders/heightened aggression
44
2 limitations of the role of chromones and hormones
Overly-simplistic, Van Anders (2016)
45
Overly simplicatic relating to the role of chromones and hormones
Describing hormones as male and female is overly-simplistic, both genders need both, e.g. lower oestrogen in men = lower sex drive and less sperm
46
Van Anders (2016) study
Testosterone levels increased in Women when they wielded power over others, so evidence that gender causes testosterone,
47
Van Anders (2016) study conclusion
Biological approach is reductionist, a holistic approach using social factors may be more valid
48
Atypical sex chromosome patterns, 2 examples
XXY - Klinefelters syndrome, XO - Turners syndrome
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Klinefelters syndrome overview
XXY, male, 1/660 men
50
Physical characteristics of Klinefelters
Less facial hair, tall, long limbs, small testes, development of breast tissue
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Psychological characteristics of Klinefelters
Cognitive difficulties (dyslexia), passive, easy to upset, aggressive outbursts
52
Turners syndrome overview
XO, no second chromosome in 23rd pair, female, 1/2000 girls
53
Physical characteristics of Turners
No menstural cycle/sterile, short, limited breast development, wide chest, short webbed neck, immature appearance
54
Psychological characteristics of Turners
Good verbal skills (reading/writing), lower visual ability, socially immature
55
A strength of research into Atypical sex chromosome patterns
Leads to medical interventions to improve lives of affected; oestrogen therapy for TS, Testosterone therapy for KS to limit symptons,
56
Research into atypical sex chromosome patterns - issues and debates
We can see the origins for sexual development and gendered behaviour in humans, but social immaturity in TS may be due to how people treat them/environment due to their physically immature appearance
57
What is the cognitive explanation of gender development
Children's understanding actively develops, they directly seek out learning experiences rather than observing and responding to stimuli
58
What is Kohlberg's theory about gender development
Gender develops in stages - via; maturation, socialisation and decreasing ego centrism
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What type of explanation is Kohlberg's theory of gender development
Cognitive
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What is Kohlberg's first stage
Gender identity - 2-3 Years old, aware of own gender, can identify other people's genders, not aware of gender permanance
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What is Kohlberg's second stage
Gender stability - 4-5 Years old, aware own gender is fixed, confused by non normative appearances or roles
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What is Kohlberg's third stage
Gender consistency - around 5 Years old, knows everyone's gender is fixed over time, not fooled by changes to or unusual hair, clothes or context
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What is a supporting study for Kohlberg's gender development theory
Slaby and Frey (1975)
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Slaby and Frey (1975) study premise
Interviews, assessing stages of gender development, 23 boys and 32 girls, (2-5.5 years old), watched film with and woman and man preforming the same gendered task on opposite sides of the screen,
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Slaby and Frey (1975) study results
Children in gender consistency stage spent longer staring at own gender, more noticeable in boys
66
Slaby and Frey (1975) study conclusion
Supports Kohlberg's gender development theory, children look to same-sex model for gender self-socialistation
67
What is the gender schema theory
Martin and Halverson (1981), children start to actively develop gender schema in gender identity stage, children focus more/develop a greater understanding of ingroup (own gender) than outgroup, this is reinforced by gendered words from adults that influence their behaviour/thoughts
68
What type of explanation is the gender schema theory
Cognitive
69
2 strengths of the gender schema theory
Martin and Halverson (1983), Martin and Little (1990)
70
Martin and Halverson (1983) study premise
Showed children (5-6 years old) pictures of men and women doing sex-consistent or inconsistent tasks, asked them to recall the pictures 1 week later
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Martin and Halverson (1983) study results
Children had swapped the sex to match the gendered activity
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Martin and Halverson (1983) study conclusion
Suggests internal schemas of gendered behabiour act as default expectations and can influence the recall of memory
73
Martin and Little (1990) study premise
Assessed stages of gender development for 3-5.5 year olds, the experimenter judged toys, clothes and items to be for boys or girls, judged childrens preferences, knowledge and excitement about them
74
Martin and Little (1990) study results
Youngest children still had strong sex-type preferences and knowledge of stereotypes before reaching the gender consistency stage
75
Martin and Little (1990) study conclusion
Supports idea that stereotypes are formed early, gender schema theory suggests that Kohlberg was wrong about when gendered preferences start
76
4 limitations of the cognitive explanation for gender development
Lack of variation in gendered behaviour, Alexander and Hines (2002), inferences, Freud
77
A strength of the cognitive explanation for gender development + explanation
Internal mental processes - explains how childrens understanding develop
78
Lack of variation in gendered behaviour as a limitation of the cognitive explanation for gender development
Biological theories suggests gendered behaviour is due to innate processes causing instinctual behaviour not schemas, this better fits the observation that most cultures share the same gendered stereotypes, schemas would suggest a greater variation in gendered behaviours
79
Alexander and Hines (2002) study results
Male vervet monkeys were more likely to play with masculine toys (cars) and females with feminine toys (dolls) with not prior experience
80
Alexander and Hines (2002) study conclusion
Gender preferences are instinctual and may be evolutionary
81
Inferences as a limitation of the cognitive explanation for gender development
Use of young children - hard to communicate, rely on inferences, lead to bias
82
Freud as a limitation of the cognitive explanation for gender development
Social learning theory better explains the stronger sex-typing in boys due to stronger social pressure, Freud suggests that the oedipus complex is more formative than the electra complex
83
What is psychodynamics
Study of how the unconscious mind influences and drives us
84
What is Freud's psychoanalytical theory
Gendered behaviour develops due to unconcious thought processes, sexuality develops during the 5 psychosexual stages, gender development occurs after the 3rd stage (phallic stage) - around 5 years old
85
What is the oedipus complex
Boys, sexual feelings towards mother, sees father as sexual rival/threat, fear of father turns to castration anxiety, tries to be like father so they can be allies (identification)
86
What is the electra complex
Jung (1913) - competetition with mother for fathers attention/love, identifies with mother, takes on female gender, replaces penis envy with desire for baby
87
What is identification
Desire to be accepted by same sex parent instead of being a threat, imitates gender role of same sex parent = resolution of O/E complex, internalised gender identity/role so emerged from phallic stage with behaviours/attitude of same sex parent
88
1 research support for the psychodynamic explanation of gender development
Little Hans - Freud (1909)
89
Overview of Little Hans
Case study, 5 years old, phobia of horses and a range of dreams, Freud - fear of horses biting = fear of father linked to castration, dreams = desire for mother
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2 study limitations of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development
Stevenson and Black (1988), Martin and Little (1990)
91
Stevenson and Black (1988) study premise
Meta-analysis, 67 studies on father absent families
92
Stevenson and Black (1988) study results
More stereotypically masculine behaviours in boys than in no father housedholds than in heterosexual families, no significant differences in gender development
93
Stevenson and Black (1988) study conclusion
Freud was wrong about a father figure being needed for a typical gender identity
94
Martin and Little (1990) study results
Children as young as 3 displayed gendered behaviour
95
Martin and Little (1990) study conclusion
Gendered behaviour can begin with a limited understanding of gender and before the identification aspect of the phallic stage
96
Issues and debates regarding the psychodynamic explanation of gender development
Socially sensitive - used to stigmatise/criticise same gender/single parent families, research has shown it is wrong to be stigmatised
97
3 non-study limitations of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development
Unscientific, case studies, lacks temporal validity
98
Unscientific as a limitation of the psychodynamic expanation of gender
Oedipus is unconcious, no way to test so not falisifiable
99
Case studies as a limitation of the psychodynamic expanation of gender
Case studies used a lot in psychodynamic research, open to bias/subjectivity, low validity - Little Han's parents were big fans of Freuds
100
Lacking temporal validity as a limitation of the psychodynamic expanation of gender
Much wider variety of families than at the start of the 20th century
101
Non-study strength strength of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development
Matches the anecdotal experience, e.g. mummy's boy/daddy's girl - children grow out of it
102
What is the social learning theory
Learning through experience, socialistation, observation and reward
103
How does the social learning theory influence gender
Vicarious or direct reinforment for gender appropriate behaviour
104
What are the 2 types of role models
Live and symbolic
105
How do role models influence behaviour
Identification and imitation
106
What are the mediational processes
Attention (see), retention (remember), reproduction (ability) and motivation (desire)
107
What are 2 supporting studies for the social learning theory applied to gender development
Smith and Lloyd (1978) and Rust (2000)
108
Rust (2000) study premise
Investigated if the sex of older siblings was associated with gender role development of 3 year old children, measured the gender role behaviour of 2000+ children with 1 older sibling and 3000+ children with no older sibling
109
Rust (2000) study results
Older brother = girls and boys behaved more masculine, older sister = boys are more feminine
110
Rust (2000) study conclusion
Older siblings act as models even if a different gender
111
How does culture and media influence gender development
Gender normative roles are rewarded in the media (damsel in distress vs prince charming or superhereos)
112
2 research supports for the influence the social learning theory and culture and media on gender development
Mead (1935), Furnham and Mak (1999)
113
Furnham and Mak (1999) study premise
Reviewed studies from 11 countries on sex role stereotyping in TV adverts
114
Furnham and Mak (1999) study results
Consistent patterns of Women as partners/spouse/consumer with men as professionals roles or authority figures - stereotyping is common across countries/cultures
115
Furnham and Mak (1999) study conclusion
Gender roles are reinforced via social learning theory
116
Influence as a strength of the social learning theory applied to gender development
European parliament requested member countries reduce stereotypical portrayals of males/females on TV - influence on policies
117
Eisend (2010) as a limiation of the influence of culture and media on gender development
Reviewed 64 studies - suggested that advertising mirrors societies rather than moudling it
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3 non-study limitations of the social learning theory on gender development
Atypical gender development, similar gender normative roles, changing gender roles
119
Atypical gender development as a limitation of the social learning theory on gender development
Social learning theory struggles to explain atypical gender development as it suggests that negative social reactions would lead to conformity but it doesn't
120
Similar gender normative roles as a limitation of the social learning theory on gender development
Most cultures show similar gender normative roles, (aggressive/competitive = male, co-operative/caring = female) which may be better explained by an evolutionary theory
121
Changing gender roles as a limitation of the social learning theory on gender development
Doesn't explain how gender roles begin to change as outliers should immediately conform rather than causing a large scale social change
122
2 non-study strengths of the social learning theory on gender development
Positive social change, traditional gender roles changing
123
Positive social change as a strength of the social learning theory on gender development
Women in STEM are made more visible
124
Traditional gender roles changing as a strength of the social learning theory on gender development
Reduces the validity of biological explanations, supports gender being a social construct and transmission of gendered behaviour via socialistation
125
What is cisgender
When your gender identity matches the sex assigned at birth
126
What is A-typical gender
When your gender doesn't align with the typical male-masculine and female-feminine biology
127
What is Agender
When you don't identify with any gender
128
What is non-binary
Blend of both female and male
129
What is gender dysphoria
Psychological distress due to a mismatch between your sex and gender
130
What is the biological explanation for gender dysphoria
Due to factors such as brain strucure, genes and hormones
131
How brain structure affects gender dysphoria
Brain sex theory; size of some regions of the brain vary due to gender, sometimes the size matches the opposite more accurately than your own
132
Genetic explanation for gender dysphoria
Variations in genes responsible for androgen reception leads to reduced effects of testosterone on the brain and body
133
Hormonal explanation for gender dysphoria
Suggests unusual levels levels of testosterone exposure in the womb influences the development of the foetus, can be under or over exposure
134
3 research supports for the biological explanation of gender dysphoria
Van Beijsterveldt (2006), Garcia-Falgueras (2008), Theisen (2009)
135
Garcia-Falgueras (2008) study premise
Post mortem analysis of part of anterior hypothalamus (INAH) on 42 subjects, measure the number of volume of neurones
136
Garcia-Falgueras (2008) study findings
Anterior hypothalamus was more similar to females than males in male to female transgender people
137
Garcia-Falgueras (2008) study conclusion
Suggests the anterior hypothalamus is implicated in gender identity and therefore gender dysphoria as a result of sexual differentiation in the brain
138
What is the psychological explanation for gender dysphoria
Gender dysphoria is due to environmental or psychologogical factors - peers, family, culture and media
139
Behaviourist explanation for gender dysphoria
Operant conditioning, being rewarded for cross-gendered behaviour could lead to gender dysphoria
140
Social learning theory explanation for gender dysphoria
Same as behaviourist but including that it can be vicarious, uses models, either lack of gender normative models or non-gender conforming models
141
Cognitive theory for gender dysphoria
Dual pathway theory, attitudinal pathway model (normative development) or personal pathway (non-normative schemas developed from experiences), if second schema overrides first then it can lead to androgyny or gender dysphoria
142
Psychodynamic approach to gender dysphoria
Not resolving the oedipus complex - not identifying so not internalising due to absense of same sex parent or maladaptive relationship with opposite sex parent
143
3 research supports for the psychological explanation for gender dysphoria
Drummond (2008), Wallien (2008), Zucker (1995)
144
Drummond (2008) study premise and results
25 girls aged 3-12 with gender dysphoria, followed up when aged between 15 and 36, only 12% still had it
145
Wallien (2008) study premise and results
55 girls and boys with gender dysphoria, 10 years later only 27% still had it
146
Drummond (2008) and Wallien (2008) study conclusions
Suggests gender identity is not innate or fixed
147
Zucker (1998) study premise
Interviewed mothers of 115 male or female children assessing levels of seperation anxiety
148
Zucker (1998) study results
Children with gender dysphoria were significantly more likely to have experienced seperation anxiety disorder
149
Zucker (1998) study conlusion
Development of A-typical gender identity is associated with early interactional relationships between mothers and sons
150
2 issues and debates of gender dysphoria
Stigma about origins, reductionist
151
Stigma about origins as an issue or debate of gender dysphoria
Evidence of a psychological origin could cause distress or lead to stigma/discrimination as it would be seen as a choice or something to be treated
152
Reductionist as an issue or debate of gender dysphoria
An interactionist approach would be more accurate, i.e. predispotion formed in childhood or from biology, expressed depending on schemas and SLT
153
Strength of gender dysphoria research - explanation
Gender dysphoria is the new term for gender identity disorder, socially sensitive, reduces stigma as no longer called a disorder
