Gender Flashcards
(122 cards)
1
Q
What is sex?
A
- The biological characteristics and differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy
2
Q
How is sex determined?
A
- Sex is innate and the result of nature
3
Q
What is gender?
A
- The psychological and cultural differences between males and females including attitudes, behaviours and social roles (typically masculine and feminine).
4
Q
How is gender determined?
A
- It is at least partly environmentally determined
- Nurture
- It is a learned, social concept
5
Q
What are sex-role stereotypes?
A
A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected or appropriate for males and females in a given society.
6
Q
What is gender identity?
A
An individual’s perception on their own masculinity and or femininity
7
Q
What is gender identity disorder?
A
Strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with one’s own assigned sex.
8
Q
What was Rubin et al’s aim?
A
To find out if new parents stereotype their babies
9
Q
What did Rubin et al do?
A
Parents were asked to describe their new babies within 24 hours of the baby being born
10
Q
What did Rubin et al find?
A
They found that parents of baby boys described their babies as being alert and strong, whereas parents of baby girls described their babies as soft and delicate
11
Q
What did Rubin et al conclude?
A
- Parents stereotype their children from a very early stage despite no stereotypical behaviour being shown
- For a lot of parents who know the sex of the baby before birth, this stereotyping behaviour starts before the baby is born by painting a room pink for a girl or blue for a boy
12
Q
What was Seavey et al’s aim?
A
To see whether the gender label attached to a baby affected adult responses
13
Q
What did Seavey et al do?
A
- A three-month-old infant was dressed in a yellow baby-suit
- One third of the participants were told that the infant was male, another third were told that the infant was female, and the other third were not given a gender label
- Participants were left to interact with the child for three minutes
- Also in the room were some toys: a ball, a rag doll and a plastic ring.
14
Q
What did Seavey et al find?
A
- When the baby was labelled as female, participants were more likely to use the doll when playing with the child
- When the baby was labelled as male, the plastic ring was chosen most frequently as the plaything
- Where no gender was given, the female participants interacted far more with the baby than the males did
- In the no-label condition almost all the participants spontaneously decided on a sex for the baby
- Their decision was often justified in terms of how the baby was perceived physically
15
Q
What did Seavey et al conclude?
A
Adults will interact differently with infants depending on whether they believe they are male or female
16
Q
What is androgyny?
A
Individuals who display a balance of masculine and feminine traits/characteristics in one’s personality
17
Q
What is the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)?
A
The first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits (20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral) to produce scores across two dimensions; masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated
18
Q
What did Bem find using her BSRI?
A
- More people were androgynous than at the extremes
- Masculinity and femininity are independent traits
- They are not inevitably linked to sex
- A person can score high or low on either or both regardless of their sex
19
Q
What are chromosomes?
A
Found in the nucleus of living cells carrying information in the form of genes
20
Q
Which pair of chromosomes determines the sex of the embryo?
A
23rd pair
21
Q
What is a hormone?
A
A chemical substance circulated in the blood that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs
22
Q
What is testosterone?
A
A hormone from the androgen group that is produced mainly in the male testes
23
Q
What is testosterone associated with?
A
Aggression
24
Q
What is oestrogen?
A
The primary female hormone, playing an important role in the menstrual cycle and reproductive system
25
What is oxytocin?
A hormone which causes contraction of the uterus during labour and stimulates lactation
26
Which chromosomes determine a female?
XX
27
Which chromosomes determine a male?
XY
28
Explain male embryotic development.
- SRY gene produces a protein : Testes Determining Factor (TDF)
- TDF influences the development of the gonads, they become testes
- The testes produce testosterone
- Testosterone triggers the development of external male organs i.e. penis
29
Explain female embryotic development.
The absence of male hormone will result in the development of the Mullerian system into female sex organs
30
What is gender development mostly influenced by in terms of chromosomes and hormones?
Hormones
31
What did Nanne Van de Poll et al do?
- Found that female rats who had been injected with testosterone became more physically and sexually aggressive.
- Suggesting that testosterone is linked to aggression
32
What does oestrogen do?
- Determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation
- Alongside the physical changes, oestrogen causes some women to experience heightened emotionally and irritability during their menstrual cycle (PMS)
33
What does oxytocin do?
- Stimulates lactation, making it possible for mothers to breastfeed their children
- Reduces the stress hormone cortisol and facilitates binding
- Oxytocin is released in massive quantities during labour and after childbirth and makes new mothers feel ‘in love’ with their baby
- Men produce less of this hormone
34
What are atypical chromosome patterns?
Any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation and which tends to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms
35
What is Klinefelter's Syndrome?
- A syndrome affecting males in which an individual’s genotype has an extra X chromosome (in addition to the normal XY)
- 47 chromosomes
36
What are the physical characteristics of Klinefelter's Syndrome?
- Tall thin physique
- Small infertile testes (hypogonadism)
- Enlarged breasts
37
What are the psychological characteristics of Klinefelter's Syndrome?
- Poor language abilities, learning difficulties
- ‘Shy and passive’ temperament
- Identify as male with similar behaviours to biologically typical males
38
What is Turner's Syndrome?
- A chromosomal disorder in which affected women have only one X chromosome
- 45 chromosomes
39
How many people have Turner's Syndrome?
Approx 1 in 2000 females
40
What are the physical characteristics of Turner's Syndrome?
- Neck, stature differences
| - Underdeveloped ovaries, lack of menstruation at puberty
41
What are the psychological characteristics of Turner's Syndrome?
- Poor spatial and mathematical abilities
- Poor social adjustment
- Higher than average reading ability
- Identify as female with similar behaviours to biologically typical females
42
What are the cognitive explanations of gender development?
- Kohlberg's Theory
| - Gender Schema Theory
43
What is Kohlberg's Theory?
Suggests that a child’s understanding of gender develops in 3, universal stages
44
What are the 3 stages in Kohlberg's Theory?
- Gender identity
- Gender stability
- Gender constancy
45
At what age does gender identity occur?
Around age 2
46
What is gender identity?
- The child recognises that they are a boy or a girl and possesses the ability to label others
- Children believe that their sex can change
- Believe that changing clothes can change a person’s sex
47
At what age does gender stability occur?
Around age 4
48
What is gender stability?
- The child understands their own gender is fixed and they will be male or female when they are older
- Due to being egocentric they do not realise that this also applies to other people
- Still see certain characteristics as being masculine or feminine
49
At what age does gender constancy occur?
Around 6 or 7
50
What is gender constancy?
- The child realises that gender is consistent over time and situations
- They begin to identify with people of their own gender
- Start to behave in gender-appropriate ways
- Less egocentric
- Actively seek out role models to imitate to help them develop their sense of gender
51
Why do children at the gender constancy stage imitate role models?
Once the child has a fully developed and internalised concept of gender at the constancy stage, they embark upon an active search for evidence which confirms that concept
52
What is a gender schema?
- An organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are derived from experience
- Such schema guide a person’s understanding of their own gender and gender-appropriate behaviour in general
53
What are scripts?
Scripts of activities and/or actions that males and females perform (women make the dinner, men fix cars).
54
Who created the gender schema theory?
Martin and Halverson
55
What is the gender schema theory?
- Suggests that children learn pre-programmed gender schema between age 2-3
- Then begin to search the environment for information that encourages the development of gender schema
- Children form stereotypes of the ways that they think males and females behave.
- Children go on to develop scripts of activities and/or actions that males and females perform
- If a behaviour is considered inconsistent they may just ignore it so that their stereotypes or schemas don’t need to be altered
56
What similarities are there between Kohlberg's Theory and the Gender Schema Theory?
- Like Kohlberg, Martin and Halverson suggest that children’s understanding of gender increases with age and that children develop their understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning, rather than passively observing
57
What are in-groups and out-groups?
- Children have a much better understanding of the schemas that relate to their own gender - they view their own group as the ‘in-group’ and the opposite as ‘out-group’
- In-group identity serves to increase the child’s level of self-esteem
- E.g. Boys pay close attention to boy’s toys, pay minimal attention to anything ‘girly’
58
According to Martin and Halverson's Gender Schema Theory, at what age do children build more elaborate schemas for both genders?
Around age 8
59
What is the psychodynamic approach?
States that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality
60
Who developed the psychodynamic approach?
Freud
61
What is the oedipus complex?
- Freud’s explanation of how a boy resolves his love for his mother and feelings of rivalry towards his father by identifying with his father
- Castration anxiety
62
What is the electra complex?
- Freud’s explanation of how a girl's attraction to and envy of their father is resolved through identification with their mother. and desire for a baby
- Penis envy
63
At what stage do the oedipus and electra complex take place?
The Phallic Stage
64
What is the phallic stage?
- The child seeks pleasure from playing with his or her own genitals
- They begin to pay attention to other people's genitals and so begin to understand the physical differences between males and females
- This is the start of children’s developing gender identity
65
Explain the Little Hans case study.
- One of Freud's most famous case studies
- 5 year old little Hans was scared of horses after watching one fall on the street thinking it was dead
- The horse represented his fear of his father
- All communication to Hans was done by letter
- Support for the psychodynamic approach
66
What is the social learning theory?
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
67
What is the social learning explanation for gender development?
- Acknowledges the role that the social context plays
- All gender-specific characteristics are learned through the differences in how girls and boys are treated
- Nurture
- At birth, boys are girls are psychologically the same
68
What are the main principles of the social learning theory as an explanation for gender development?
- Learn through observation
- Children look to ‘models’ for guidance as to how they should act and then imitate the behaviour observe
- Gender related behaviour is learnt when we receive vicarious reinforcement for the behaviour
69
What is the importance of significant others in gender development?
- Significant others that the child comes into contact with (including parents, peers and teachers, etc) in the environment are important in shaping gender development – this includes, in terms of gender, the same-sex significant other
70
What is positive reinforcement?
Anything that strengthens behaviour because it is rewarding to the learner
71
What is negative reinforcement?
Anything that strengthens behaviour because it stops an unpleasant experience
72
Are children more likely to be praised for gender appropriate behaviours?
Yes
73
Are children likely to continue to reproduce a behaviour that has been punished?
No
74
Are children likely to reproduce a behaviour where the role-model has a negative experience?
No
75
What is vicarious reinforcement?
The tendency to repeat or duplicate behaviours that we observe others are being rewarded for
76
Give examples of direct reinforcement.
- Positive reinforcement
- Negative reinforcement
- Punishment
77
Give examples of indirect reinforcement.
- Vicarious reinforcement
| - Media
78
From the role model's perspective, what is modelling?
The precise demonstration of a behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
79
From the learner's perspective, what is modelling?
The imitation of behaviour that is demonstrated by a role model
80
What does the term 'mediational processes' mean?
Social learning theorists have suggested that cognitive processes that are central to the learning of gender behaviour
81
How many cognitive processes are involved in learning of gender behaviour?
4
82
What are the 4 mediational or cognitive processes involved in learning of gender behaviour?
- Attention
- Retention
- Motor Reproduction
- Motivation
83
What is the cognitive process 'attention'?
The behaviour needs to be modelled by someone that one wants to imitate
84
What is the cognitive process 'retention'?
The modelled behaviour needs to be remembered
85
What is the cognitive process 'motor reproduction'?
- Repeat the behaviour
| - Need to believe that you are capable of copying the behaviour (self-efficacy)
86
What is the cognitive process 'motivation'?
There needs to be a reason to repeat the behaviour
87
Describe 2 ways that the cognitive process 'motivation' might be achieved.
- Behaviour observed from someone you admire (significant other)
- The modelled behaviour has been reinforced
88
Why is gender seen as a social construct, according to the social learning explanation of gender development?
- We are not born with it
| - It is not learned once, we modify behaviour dependent on age, culture etc
89
What are gender roles?
A set of behaviours and attitudes that are considered appropriate for one gender and inappropriate for the other
90
What is culture?
The ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people or society
91
What are universal features?
Characteristics found in all cultures
92
What do universal features suggest?
- An innate, biological basis for gender
| - Support for the nature view
93
What are culturally specific features?
Characteristics found in some places not others
94
What do culturally specific features suggest?
- Gender is learned
| - Support for the social learning explanation and nurture view
95
What did Margaret Mead do?
- Detailed ethnographic study of tribal groups on the island of New Guinea for 6 months
- Found that different tribes display different levels of femininity and masculinity and gender roles sometimes reversed compared to Western society
96
Which study supports cultural differences?
Malinowski
- Studied the Trobriand islanders
- In documenting their sexual behaviour, Malinowski reported that the Trobriand women were sometimes highly sexually aggressive
- Gangs of women would capture and rape men from other tribes
97
Which study supports cultural similarities?
David Buss
- Carried out a survey in 37 countries where people had to rate the importance of certain characteristics of a potential mate
- Males rated good looks, chastity and youth as important
- Women rated financial prospects, industriousness and dependability
98
What is the media?
Communication channels, such as TV, film and books, through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available
99
What are rigid stereotypes?
- The media provide role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate
- The media may play a role in reinforcing very clear gender stereotypes concerning male and female behaviour
100
How are men depicted in the media?
- Independent
- Ambitious
- Advice-givers
101
How are women depicted in the media?
- Dependent
- Unambitious
- Advice-seekers
102
What did Furnham and Farragher do?
- Investigated the use of sex-role stereotypes in advertising
- Men tended to be used in power positions and voiceovers
- Women in ‘familial roles within domestic settings
- Suggests that media may play a role in reinforcing widespread rigid stereotypes
103
What is media exposure mean in terms of gender development?
Children who have more exposure to popular forms of media tend to display more gender stereotypes
104
What did McGhee and Frueh do?
Found that people who view a lot of television tend to display more gender-stereotypical views in their behaviour and attitudes than people who view little tv.
105
What is information giving?
The media may also give information to males and females in terms of the likely success, or otherwise, of adopting these behaviours
106
What are counter-stereotypes?
Counter-stereotypes challenge traditional notions of masculinity and femininity
107
Which study supports counter-stereotypes?
Pingree
- Found that gender stereotyping was reduced when children were shown TV adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles
108
What is gender identity disorder (GID)?
- Characterised by strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort it one’s own assigned sex
- Desire to live as members of the opposite sex
- Often dress and use mannerisms associated with the opposite gender
109
According to the DSM-5, what is the new name for GID?
Gender dysphoria
110
What is the difference between gender dysphoria and androgyny?
- Dysphoria is not being happy with the gender you are and wanting to change
- Androgyny is having both masculine and feminine characteristics
111
What is the diagnosis of gender dysphoria, according to the DSM-5?
- Experience will affect ability to function in everyday life
- Feel a strong sense of discomfort with their own biological sex
- No biological disorder should occur at the same time
- Must experience ongoing identification with the opposite sex
112
What is the biological explanation of gender dysphoria?
The perception that dysphoria is physiologically determined
113
What is the brain-sex theory?
Suggests that dysphoria is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a person’s biological sex.
114
What did Zhou do?
Studied the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BSTc) which is assumed to be fully developed at age 5 and around 40% larger in males than females
115
What did post-mortem studies of the brain do?
- Search for confirmation of structural differences
- In post-mortems of 6 male-to-female transgender individuals who had received feminising hormones, the BSTc was found to be a similar size to as heterosexual women
116
What sis Kruijiver et al do?
- Post-mortem study
- Focused on the number of neurons in the BSTc rather than the volume
- 6 transgender individuals showed a similar number of neurons in the BSTc to those found in heterosexual women
117
What can post-mortem studies conclude about the biological explanation of gender dysphoria?
Concluded that the BSTc provides evidence for a neurobiological basis of gender dysphoria and proposed that such was determined before birth
118
What are the 2 biological explanations for gender dysphoria?
- Brain-sex theory
| - Genetic basis
119
Name 2 twin studies which investigated the genetic basis of gender dysphoria.
- Coolidge
| - Heylens et al
120
What did Coolidge do?
- Assessed 157 twin pairs (96 MZ and 61 DZ) for evidence of gender identity disorder using the clinical diagnosis of criteria in DSM-4
- The prevalence of GID was estimated to be 2.3% with 62% of these cases said to be accounted for by genetic variance
- This suggests there is a strong heritable component to GID
121
What did Heylens et al do?
- Compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins where one of each pair was diagnosed with GID
- They found that 9 (39%) of the MZ twins was concordant for GID compared to none of the DZs which would indicate a role for genetic factors in the development of GID
122
What is the social-psychological explanation for gender dysphoria?
- The perception that GID is a condition learned via socialisation processes
- Based on Freudian theory and insights from cognitive psychology
