Gender & Ethnicity

Question 1

Define sex

Answer 1

Biological & physiological characteristics that are used to categorise people as male or female

Question 2

Define gender

Answer 2

Socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities & attributes that a given society considers appropriate for males & females

Question 3

What is heteronormativity?

Answer 3

Society’s assumption that relationships between the opposite binary sex individuals (heterosexuality) are the norm of default

Question 4

Are sex and gender binary categories?

Answer 4

They used to be but now this is not so clear cut anymore as there is a spectrum

Question 5

Define gender identity

Answer 5

Internal sense of one’s own gender

Question 6

What is a simple thing you can do to respect a person’s gender identity?

Answer 6

Getting the pronoun right e.g. she/he/they (don’t just use their sex)

Question 7

Define transgender

Answer 7

Umbrella term for people whose gender identity differs from the sex/gender they were assigned at birth

Question 8

Define sexual orientation

Answer 8

A person’s physical, romantic, emotional or other form of attraction to others

Question 9

What is the difference between men and women’s mortality?

Answer 9

Women live longer than men

Death rates for males higher at all stages of lifecourse

Question 10

What is the pattern for morbidity rates seen across the population as a whole?

Answer 10

Few differences for many diseases when socio-economic differences are controlled for

Question 11

What is the difference in morbidities between men and women?

Answer 11

Women spend a greater proportion of lives in poor health & with disability

Higher mental illness rates amongst women

Question 12

How can sex/gender differences in health be explained?

Answer 12

• Biological explanations?
• Differences in health behaviour?
• Gender roles & exposures?
• Use of & access to health services?
• May be different explanations for men & women’s health patterns

Question 13

What are some of the possible biological explanations for sex/gender differences in health?

Answer 13

• Boys more vulnerable in infancy (prematurity/mortality/bigger/genetic differences/chronic conditions)
• IS differences (women’s IS > men’s but more prone to autoimmunity)
• Hormone differences
• CV reactivity (> in men due to real-world stressors but > women due to other stressors)
• Neuroendocrine response (stress affects this too)

Question 14

What are some patterns of health behaviour in men?

Answer 14

• Higher smoking rates
• Consume more alcohol
• Higher rates of hospital admission for alcohol-related problems
• Strong association with heavy drinking, depression & suicide in men

Question 15

What are some patterns of health behaviour in women?

Answer 15

Lower smoking rates but more difficulty quitting (linked to working/caring roles)

Question 16

What shapes health behaviour patterns?

Answer 16

Social & economic contexts

Question 17

What type of gender inequality exists today?

Answer 17

• Pay gap of 10%
• Slightly higher rates of poverty amongst women e.g. long mothers/pensioners
• Work environments improved for men + women but accidents higher for men still

Question 18

What damages girls/womens health globally?

Answer 18

Gender inequality

Question 19

What are gendered roles & exposures?

Answer 19

How social roles & experiences shape health

Expectations about males & females associated with health & other behaviours

Question 20

What gender-sanctioned health/health-seeking behaviours exist in males?

Answer 20

Men’s health-related behaviours now viewed as means by which they demonstrate their masculinity (gain status as ‘men’) so often use ‘masculine-sanctioned’ coping behaviour to relieve stress despite potential damaging circumstances

Question 21

Why are men at higher risk of accidents?

Answer 21

Due to exposure via work, driving & risk-taking

Question 22

What type of work is more women-orientated? How can this affect health?

Answer 22

Caring

Associated with physical & mental ill-health

Question 23

What can occur as a result of gendered social experiences?

Answer 23

Biological embedding (roles -> stress -> health behaviours -> biology)

Question 24

What types of diseases are perceived as ‘male’ or ‘female’ orientated? How could this affect health?

Answer 24

Men: CVD

Women: depression & anxiety

Question 25

What gender are more likely to visit the doctor? Why?

Answer 25

Women Perhaps they get more comfortable visiting Dr at early age due to reproductive issues

Question 26

What is the problem in identifying CHD as a 'mans disease'?

Answer 26

Men & women have different underlying causes Women have different symptoms to men (websites/adverts advertise men's common symptoms) = women less likely to recognise own symptoms waiting longer to call ambulance/Drs can fail to identify it causing underdiagnoses & death

Question 27

What are the differences between the cause & symptoms of CHD in men and women?

Answer 27

High cholesterol + HBP causes in men whilst diabetes play a bigger role in women Symptoms in men more likely to be chest pain whereas women may have no pain but nausea, vomiting, jaw pain & back pain for e.g.

Question 28

Why is there a difference in cancer between genders?

Answer 28

Prostate cancer: men only (biological difference rather than inequality) Breast cancer: higher rates in women (biological difference not inequality) BUT lower survival rates in men (gender inequality)

Question 29

What is race?

Answer 29

Historical term used to argue existence of biological differences between populations based on skin colour & head size for e.g. - support argument that white people with specific bone structure more superior BUT populations physically & genetically more similar than different so discredited term

Question 30

What are the 2 common characteristics that separate one ethnic group from another?

Answer 30

1. Long shared history, of which the group is conscious as distinguishing it from other groups & memory of which keeps it alive 2. Cultural tradition of its own, including family + social customs/manners often associated with religious observance

Question 31

How diverse is the UK population?

Answer 31

Large-scale migration common since the late 1940s & has increased over last 10 years more so = variety of ethnic groups

Question 32

What are the ethnic inequalities in health? Give a couple of examples.

Answer 32

Ethnic minorities have poorer health generally than white majority population although poorer health outcomes/experience not uniform E.G. higher infant mortality rates & self-reported health lower

Question 33

What is the difference in type 2 diabetes diagnosis with regards to ethnicity in comparison to the white population?

Answer 33

South Asian: 6x more likely than white population & likely to develop it 10 years earlier African/African-Carribbean descent: 3x more likely than white population

Question 34

Why are there ethnic inequalities in health?

Answer 34

- Genetic/biological - Cultural - Migration - Social deprivation - Racism

Question 35

How could genetic/biological factors explain ethnic inequalities in health?

Answer 35

Based on 'genetic homogeneity' where ethnicity & ancestry used as proxy for genetic risk

Question 36

What are the advantages & disadvantages of using genetic/biological factors to explain ethnic inequalities in health?

Answer 36

Based on outdated biological concept of 'race' Some congenital abnormalities & haemoglobinopathies influenced by genes but ethnicity not always helpful in identifying at risk groups Epigenetics Genes/biology cannot explain all ethnic health inequalities

Question 37

Define epigenetics

Answer 37

Genes affected by environment

Question 38

How can health behaviour & cultural explanations explain the ethnic health inequalities?

Answer 38

Locates poorer health of minority groups in nature of what it is to be a member of that group so often focuses on health beliefs/behaviours (e.g. smoking, diet & exercise) However, can be seen as victim-blaming

Question 39

Give an example of a health behaviour influencing the health of a ethnic group.

Answer 39

Asian rickets caused by high rates of CHD due to deficient South Asian diet & high ghee content of some Asian diets Whilst smoking rates for women are very low

Question 40

How can migration explain ethnic health inequalities?

Answer 40

Migrants selected based on having better health than original population but tends to revert to mean standard of population health -> relative decline in health compared to health of destination country Stressful experience of migration/settling in (mental health) 'Salmon Bias'phenomenon

Question 41

What is the 'Salmon Bias' phenomenon?

Answer 41

People returning home when ill could artificially reduce mortality rate of migrant populations

Question 42

How can social deprivation explain ethnic health inequalities?

Answer 42

Inequalities reflect broad pattern of socio-economic inequality among minority groups (Nazroo theory) Socio-economic factors more important than other factors as affects access to health resources e.g. housing, food, exercise etc.

Question 43

How are ethnic minorities usually socially deprived? What will this effect?

Answer 43

More likely to live in deprived neighbourhoods Higher unemployment rate = poorer paid jobs/no job & lower income/no income affecting access to health resources

Question 44

Define racism

Answer 44

Conduct/words/practices that disadvantage people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin Daily experience for many ethnic minority groups & its just as damaging in subtle AND overt forms

Question 45

What is direct racism?

Answer 45

People treated less favourably because of their ethnicity or religion

Question 46

What is indirect racism?

Answer 46

People unaware their actions are undermining position of people from ethnic minority groups

Question 47

What is institutional racism?

Answer 47

Collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate & professionals service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin - seen/detected in processes, attitude & behaviour which amount to discrimination through unwitting prejudice, ignorance, thoughtlessness & racist stereotyping which disadvantage minority ethnic people

Question 48

How can racism cause ethnic health inequalities?

Answer 48

Lived experience of racism vital to understanding what contributes to health inequalities Direct racism & harassment can cause health inequality Indirect racism can affect health e.g. fear of racism creating worry & stress which can damage health too

Question 49

How can healthcare explain ethnic health inequality?

Answer 49

Lack of responsive service provision for some ethnic minority groups (services need to be sensitive to culture & religion)