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0
Q

Hypoxia

A

Oxygen deprivation which means the cell cannot form aerobic respiration is often due to ischmea. Four types
Hypoxaemic, anaemic hypoxia, ischemic hypoxia, histocytic

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1
Q

Ischemia

A

Loss of blood supply to reduced arterial supply or reduced venous drainage. Symptoms for serve than hypoxia since loss of metabolites not just oxygen and so they also develop more quickly

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2
Q

Hypoxaemic hypoxia

A

Arterial content of the oxygen is low due to lung disease or altitude

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3
Q

Anaemic hypoxia

A

Arterial content of the oxygen is low due to anemia or carbon monoxide

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4
Q

Ischeamic hypoxia

A

Inrruption to blood supply due to blockage of a vessel or heart failure

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5
Q

Histocytic hypoxia

A

Failure of the production of the oxidative enzymes needed in metabolism

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6
Q

Nuclear pyknosis

A

Shrinkage of the nucleus because of condensation of chromatin

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7
Q

Nuclear karyolysis

A

Dissolution of the nucleus

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8
Q

Nuclear karyorrhesis

A

Fragmentation of the nucleus into bits

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9
Q

Necrosis

A

Changes that occur after cell death

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10
Q

Oncosis

A

Cell death with swelling due to ischemia the changes that occur in injured cells right before death

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11
Q

Acute inflammation

A

The innate, immediate and early response of living tissue to injury it is is no specific. Can be from a variety of causes microbal infection. Viruses, tissue necrosis

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12
Q

Chronic inflammation

A

Tissue’s response to injury with associated fibrosis. It is specific response different for different tissues

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13
Q

What are giant cells and what are the three types?

A

Multinucleated made by the fusion of macrophages via fustrated phagocytosis. Inside is a collection of cells trying to be phagocytoses. Langhans horse shoe shaped with TB, foreign body type, touton foam cytoplasm around the outside places of fat necrosis

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14
Q

What is a granuloma

A

Localised aggregation of epithelial histocytes +\~ lymphocytes, giant cells, caseous necrosis

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15
Q

What are the four conditions in which granulomas are seen?

A

Mycobacteria
Syphilis
Sarcordosis
Crohns disease

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16
Q

Define homeostasis

A

The maintance of a constant internal environment within set limits. It can be described as dynamic

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17
Q

What are the lines of zahn. What are the lighter and darker bits correspond to?

A

Lighter- platelets dark- RBC

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18
Q

What does a thrombus look like in the arterial and venous look like.

A

In the arterial system there are more cells it is more granular and more pale due to the increased number of platelets. Venous soft gelatinous there are more cells but more RBC rather than platelets therefore it more of a deep red colour than pale

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19
Q

What other than artheroma can effect the vessel wall?

A

Direct injury, inflammation, hypertension

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20
Q

What are the 5 outcomes of thrombosis

A 
Lysis
Propogation 
Organisation 
Recannulation 
Thrombo-embolism
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21
Q

How does thrombomodulin work?

A

Prothrombin is converted to thrombin which binds to thrombomodulin which in the endothelium this iniates protein C which stops the activation of some clotting factos

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22
Q

What are the 5 effects of chronic inflammation?

A 
Fibrosis 
Increase function
Atrophy
Simulation of immune response
Impaired function
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23
Q

What is the definition of thrombosis

A

Formation of solid mass of blood within the circulatory system in life

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24
Artheroma
The accumulation of inta and extra cellular lipid in the tunica intima and media of large and medium sized arteries
25
Atherio-sclerosis
The thickening and harding of arterial walls as a consequence of atheroma
26
Aterio-sclerosis
The thickening and hardipening of arterial walls not as a consequence of atheroma, instead by things like hypertension/ diabetes mellitus
27
What are the microscopic features of a arthromatus plague
Smooth muscle proliferation Foam cells Extracellular lipid in the wall Then later a fibrous cap, area of necrosis, plague fissering, cholestrol clefts
28
What are the macroscopic features of arthroma
Fatty streak- lipid in tunica intima, yellow Simple plague- small necrotic core, thick fibrous cap, raised, irregular stable angina Complex plague- large necrotic core, thin fibrous cap which is subject to fissuring and rupture
29
What is mallory hylaine?
Pink blobs seen in the cytoplasm of the cell due to increased keratin often seen in hepatocytes in alcoholic liver disease
30
Give an example of an exogenous and endogenous pigaments
Exo- melain. Tatooing,coals Endo- lipofuscin (ageing cells) evidence of oxidative stress Bilibruin and haemosterin (iron)
31
What is wallerian degeneration?
There has been a cut to a nerve, as long as the cells body isnt injured the proximal part will sprout axons to the distal degenerating part. Stimulated by growth factors secreted by schawann cells. Advancement 1mm/day gap can be too large. Slower in the CNS than the PNS due to presence of oligodentricites
32
What are the stages to fracture repair?
``` Haemotomms from ruptured vessels Granulation tissue macrophages, endothelial cells, fibroblasts, osteoblasts, necrotic tissue and angiogenesis Soft callus Hard callus Remodelling ```
33
What is regeneration?
The replacement of damaged / dead cells by functionally differentiated cells derived from stem cells. The size of the organ or tissue is maintained
34
Define liable, stem and permanent stem cells and give examples of each
Libale - them cells are continuely differentiating. E.g surface epithelium (found in basal lamina),bone marrow, lymph node cells Stable- stem cells have a slower rate of proliferation are in G0 and suitable conditions and the expression of a lot of genes can cause movement from G0 to G1. E.g. Hepatocytes, osteoclasts/blasts, fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells Permanent- left the cycle are constantly in G0. Stem cells are present but they cannot mount a big enough response
35
What is the definition of fibrosis and what are the two reasons why it may occur?
The replacement of functional tissue by scar tissue. Because the cells are a)permanent type or b) damage is too much of the collagen framework that the stable and liable cells can deal with
36
What three things make up granulation tissue
Cell migration New blood vessels Extraceullar matrix
37
What are the four steps of fibrous repair?
Inflammation cell infiltration-phago, acute chronic Clot replaced by granulation tissue- angiogenesis due to release of cytokines myo/fibroblasts produce extracelluar matrix due release of profibrotic cytokines released from macrophages Maturation. Decrease cell pop, increase in collagen which remodels, myofibroblasts contract to reduced vol deficit, vessels differentiate Fibrous scar
38
Describe the process of angiogenesis
Activation of endothelial cells, proteolysis of BM, migration, proliferation, mature and tubular remodelling, periendoethethial cells which lie next to and suppor endothelial cells
39
What is the compensition of the extracelluar matrix and its function in granulation tissue?
Fibroblasts which secrete collagen, myofibroblasts, glycoproteins, proteoglycans Function supports cells, help migration, communication, mops up growth factors
40
What is reconsitution
Replacement of a loss part of the body. Co-ordinated regenerating of different cell types. Only time this is seen in humans is in blood vessels
41
What is hyperplasia
An increase in organ size due to increase in no. Of cells. Can be hormonal or compensatory. Only in liabke and stable cells, it is reversible. Can be physiological or pathological
42
In what cells is hypertrophy seen? And give two examples of causes?
Permanent cells in which the only option is to get bigger the intracellular protein gets bigger no the actual cytosol Physiological- athletes, bulking, SM in the uterus Pathological- in response to hypertension causing hypertrophy of ventricular cardiac muscle
43
Atrophy is shrinkage of a tissue or organ due to an aquired.... What three things
Decrease in size of cells Decrease in number of cells Changes to the extracelluar matrix
44
Give a physiological cause and a number of pathological causes of atrophy....
Phsyiological- uterus after birth, ovaries in post menopausal women Pathological Disuse, denervation, poor blood supply, injury persistent, senile, pressure, loss of endocrine stimuli
45
What is the difference between metaplasia and neoplasia?
Metaplasia and neoplasia cells are replaced by ones of a different type. But metaplasia is reversible neoplasia is not and is seen as abnormal regeneration. An example would be with smoking the change of pseudo-stratified epithelial cells with stratified squamous cells.
46
What is the difference between atresia and aplasia
Atresia is abnormal closing of an office. Aplasia is the lack of development
47
How do steroids slow down would healing?
They inhibit the inflammatory response think of cortisol and cushings
48
Define neoplasm
An abnormal growth that persists after the intial stimulus has been removed. If it it is malfinant also invades surrounding tissues and has the potential to spread to foreign sites
49
Dysplasia
Abnormal maturation of cells within a tissue these cells show disorded organisation and presents in varied levels of differentiation. It is reversible therefore it is not neoplastic
50
Tumour
Clinically detectable lumo or swelling, neoplasm is only one type
51
Cancer
Malignant neoplasm
52
Metastises
Malignant neoplasm that has spread from orginal site (primary site) to a mew non- contigous site (secondary). Only happens with malignant neoplasms and is more likely to occur in large primary neoplasms. And is the bases of cancer staging.
53
Anaplastic
There is no resemblance to parent
54
Benign neoplasm
The abnormal growth of cells, which persists adter initwting stimulus has been removed
55
Malignant neoplasm
Abnormal growth of cells that persists after intiating sitmulus has been removed and invades and spreads to distant sites
56
What is pleomorphism
Variation in shapes and sizes of cells within a tissue is seen in microscopic views if malignant neoplasms
57
What is a papilloma
This is a benign neoplasm of stratified squamous epithelium. And is described because of its appearance as finger like projections. Can be found in skin, buccal muscosa Can also be a transitional cell papilloma- bladder mucosa
58
What is an adenoma
A benign neoplasm of glandular tissue
59
What is a Polyp
This is an abnormal growth of tissue projecting from a mucous membrane
60
Leukaemia
Malignant blood cell precursors in bone marrow
61
Lymphomas
Malignancy of lymphocytes. Can be hodgkins and non hodgkins
62
Myeloma
Maliginant plasma cells
63
Blastomas
Children form immature precursor cells
64
Teratoma
More than one germ layer so very different to surround tissue
65
Seminoma-
malignancy germ cell tumour of the testes
66
What is a benign teratoma also called?
Dermoid cyst and normally found in the ovaries. Think of Mr. Lee surgeries
67
What is the main difference between hodgkins and non hodgkins lymphomas
Both are malignant however the difference between the two is the type of lymphocyte that is present
68
What three things must occur to allow a neoplasm to invade?
- altered adhesion- reduced expression of e- cadherins and integrins - stromal proteolysis- matrix metalloproteinases - abnormal or increase motility due to changes in actin cytoskeleton. Reduced adhesion also effects motility
69
If a metastisis is gong to spread via the haemotogenous system what vessels is it most likely to travel through?
Capillaries and venules as there is no musclar part so easier to travel through. Goes into organs that receive drainage from or drain to for pm the secondary site.
70
What is the preferred method of carcinoma metastis transition
Lymphatics the the blood. The lymphatics is a good way since the BM is very weak.
71
From what cells are carcinoid tumours derived from?
Neuroendocrine cells
72
Xerodema pigmentosum
Autosomal recessive, mutation in genes involved in nucleotide excision repair, therefore predeposing to UV cancer
73
Hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer
Mismatch repair colon carcinoma
74
Mutations in BRCA1 or BRCA2
Repairing double strand DNA breaks associated with familia breast cancer/ovarian carcinoma
75
What is progession?
The accumulation of mutations to form a malignant neoplasm. The mutations are normally in pro-oncogenes, TSG
76
What are the six hallmarks of cancer
``` Self sufficency of GF Resistance to stop growth signals Cell immortalisation Angiogenesis Resistance to apoptosis Ability to invade and produce metastis because of gene instability ```
77
Give three example of chemicals that can cause carcogenesis
Polycylic acromatic hydrocarbons Acromatic amines N-nitorso compounds

MOD Definitions (1 decks)

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