General Anatomy of Human

Question 1

What are the cells main parts?

Answer 1

The cell has three main parts: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.

Question 2

What are the cells additional parts sans main parts?

Answer 2

organelles or cellular functions

Organelles carry out metabolic life functions necessary to maintain the cell

-their compared to the organs that sustain the functioning of our bodies

Question 3

The Plasma Membrane

Answer 3

is made of phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins.

proteins are specific for individual molecules and act as gatekeepers that allow only certain molecules in and out, making the membrane selectively permeable

Question 4

Cytoplasm

Answer 4

is the semi-fluid substance inside of the membrane that contains organelles

Question 5

Nucleus

Answer 5

Is the most prominent organelle in the cell and is spherical in appearance

Protected by a double membrane and contains genetic material in the form of nucleic acid DNA

This DNA encodes for all the proteins necessary for the cell and the organism carries out its life functions

when new cells are needed for growth or repairs of tissues, the DNA is replicated in its entirety and the cell enters into the process of cell division or mitosis

Question 6

Endoplasmic reticulum

Answer 6

is continuous with the outer membrane of the nucleus and is composed of parallel flattened sacs covered with ribosomes

smooth ER has no ribosomes and functions as the site of lipid production and storage

Question 7

Ribosomes

Answer 7

are the site of the synthesis of the protein that is encoded by the DNA in the nucleus

Question 8

Process of proteins transfer

Answer 8

Once proteins are made on the ribosomes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum, they are packaged in parts of the membrane into vesicles and transported to the Golgi complex. The protein vesicles fuse with the Golgi, where they are modified and packaged and transported to where they are needed.

So the golgi is referred to as the manufacturing and shipping department of the cell

Question 9

Golgi Complex

Answer 9

Is referred to as the manufacturing and shipping department of the cell.

Also responsible for packaging digestive enzymes within vesicles known as lysosomes and are necessary for cellular metabolism

Question 10

Mitochondria

Answer 10

For a cell to complete cellular processes, it must create usable cellular energy from the energy stored in the chemical bonds of the foods humans eat

Mitochondria is the power house of the cell, changes food energy into usable cellular energy through cellular respiration.

This usable energy is adenosine triphosphate ATP

Question 11

Tissues

Answer 11

Group of similar cells that work together to perform a singular function are classified as tissues

Question 12

4 Basic Tissues

Answer 12

Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous tissue

Question 13

Epithelial Tissue

Answer 13

covers body surfaces, lines body cavities, and serves as a protective barrier

Question 14

Connective Tissue

Answer 14

Connects other tissues to each other and serves to bind and support body parts

Question 15

Muscle tissue

Answer 15

Moves the body and its contents by contraction

Question 16

Nervous Tissue

Answer 16

Receives stimuli from the internal or external environment and communicates through electrical impulses with the rest of the body

Question 17

Organs

Answer 17

Tissues are organized into organs

Consists of two or more different tissues and have a specific shape and function

Not all organs are internal like skin (made up of all 4 tissue)

Kidney is internal organ with a definite shape consisting of epithelial, connective, and nervous tissue. Its main function is to recycle nutrients and filter wastes from the blood

Question 18

Organ System

Answer 18

Related organs with a common multifaceted function make up an organ system

organ systems work together in a harmonized fashion to maintain homeostasis

Ex. Digestive and Respiratory

Question 19

Digestive System

Answer 19

has the function of breaking down and processing the food we eat, and eliminating the solid waste

Performs this function with many organs including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas

Question 20

Respiratory System

Answer 20

performs the function of exchanging the gas of CO2 for Os with the coordinated effort of the organs of the pharynx, larynx, bronchus, trachea, lungs, and diaphragm

Question 21

The Respiratory Systems Main Functions

Answer 21

Are extracting oxygen from the atmosphere and expelling carbon dioxide from the body into the air

Constructed to maximize surface area for the exchange of gases

Alveoli are the sites in the lower part of the lungs where gases are exchanged between respiratory and circulatory systems

Question 22

The Anatomy of the respiratory System

Answer 22

Mediates the uptake of oxygen for metabolism and the release of carbon dioxide a waste product into the atmosphere

The process of aerating the lungs is known as ventilation

Question 23

How the respiratory system is divided

Answer 23

Its divided into the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract.

Question 24

Upper respiratory tract

Answer 24

Nose, Nasal Cavity, Paranasal sinuses, oral cavity, pharynx, glottis, and larynx

Question 25

Lower respiratory tract

Answer 25

begins at trachea and extends into the lungs via repeated branching of bronchus into bronchioles and ending at the alveoli, where gas exchanges occur

Question 26

Lungs

Answer 26

are the organs of respiration and are divided into lobes: three lobes on the right and two lobes on the left Each lobe is contained with a tough, protective double membrane called the pleura, with pleural fluid in between. The lungs are housed within the pleural cavity

Question 27

The Passage of Air in the Upper respiratory Tract

Answer 27

Begins in the nose and nasal cavity where it is filtered, warmed, and moistened. Air also entered through the oral cavity via the mouth. Air continues to flow from the nasal and oral cavities into the pharynx. A flap called the epiglottis covers the opening of the glottis during swallowing to prevent food and liquids from entering the lungs. The glottis is the passageway for air through the vocal chords and leads to the larynx (voice box) Oxygen flow continues from the larynx into the trachea which is the beginning of the lower respiratory tract. The trachea then splits into two main branches right and left primary bronchi repeatedly into the smaller secondary and even smaller tertiary bronchi then branch into miscropic tubes of Bronchioles that divides further until they termite in the air sacs of lungs known as alveoli. Inhaled oxygen diffuses into the red blood cells in the surrounding capillaries and from there into nearby tissues. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the tissues into the red blood cells and then the alveoli to be exhaled from the lungs

Question 28

Pharynx

Answer 28

a pathway beginning in the back of the throat and ending at the glottis. Is also a shared passageway for both air and food and contains an opening for the digestive system, as well as the continuation of the respiratory system at the glottis

Question 29

Trachea

Answer 29

also known as as the windpipe, consists of a rigid tube of cartilaginous rings and lies anterior to the esophagus The trachea then splits into two main branches that enter the lungs as the right and left primary bronchi

Question 30

Alveoli

Answer 30

The walls of the alveoli are single layer of epithelial tissue, which allows for the simple diffusion of gases in and out they are surrounded by capillaries whose walls also consist of a single layer of epithelial cells

Question 31

Ventilation

Answer 31

is the movement of air in and out of the lungs The medulla oblongata and pons in the brainstem monitor the levels of CO2 and ph in the blood. Increasing levels of CO2 causes an increase in H+ ions which makes the blood more acidic that stimulates inhalation

Question 32

Inhalation

Answer 32

During inhalation, the muscular diaphragm below the rib cage and the intercostal muscles between the ribs contract at the same time. This increases the volume of the thoracic cavity and in turn causes the lung volume to increase. The alveolar pressure inside of the lung therefore decreases causing air to flow into the lungs down the pressure gradient from high (outside lungs) to low (inside lungs)

Question 33

Exhalation

Answer 33

occurs passively with the relaxation of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles the thoracic cavity decreases in volume, causing a concomitant decrease in the lung volume. Alveolar pressure increases, and the elastic recall from the lungs and thoracic wall causes air to flow out of the lungs once again down the pressure gradient

Question 34

Lung volumes and capacities

Answer 34

are measurable quantities tidal volume, Total lung capacity, Vital capacity, Residual volume

Question 35

Tidal Volume

Answer 35

The tidal volume is the amount of air entering the lungs during the normal breathing cycle

Question 36

Total lung capacity

Answer 36

the amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum inspiration or deep breath

Question 37

Vital capacity

Answer 37

the amount of gas that can be exhaled after a maximum inspiration, as in exhaling after a deep breath

Question 38

Residual volume

Answer 38

is the amount of gas remaining in the lungs after a maximum expiration VC +RV=TLC

Question 39

Surface tension within lungs

Answer 39

Water causes an increase in surface tension, making water sticky. The watery fluid in the alveoli would cause the sides of the alveoli to stick together, causing collapse of the lungs, known as atelectasis Surfactant is a lipid mixture normally secreted by cells in the lungs, which reduces the surface tension, those preventing the sides of the alveoli from sticking together and avoiding atelectasis

Question 40

Lung Compliance

Answer 40

is a measure of the ease of expanding the lungs. depends on the elasticity of the lung tissue and the alveolar surface tension emphysema causes destruction of elastic tissue causing a greater than normal expansion of the lungs but poor recoil and increased residual volume. Asthma, bronchitis, and lung cancer cause increased resistance to lung expansion, resulting in a low compliance

Question 41

External Factors Affecting Lung Function

Answer 41

Cystic fibrosis is a dramatically impair lung compliance causes the normally slipper mucous secreted into the lungs to become thick and sticky. that can clog the airways, leading to severe breathing problems and increased susceptibility to bacterial infections

Question 42

Cardiovascular System

Answer 42

Or the circulatory system is responsible for the movement of blood and lymph around the body that allows nutrient distribution, waste removal, communication, and protection. This system comprises the closed system of blood pumped around the body by the heart through a network of arteries, veins, and capillaries also the open lymphatic system which contains lymph that bathes the interstitial spaces between cells and circulates through lymph vessels.

Question 43

Anatomy of the Cardiovascular system

Answer 43

Made of four main components: the heart, blood vessels, blood, and lymphatic system

Question 44

The Heart

Answer 44

Heart is a large muscular organ comprised of cardiac tissue called the myocardium and is surrounded by a sac called the pericardium. It contains four chambers divided by a medium septum The two superior atria are the receiving chambers and the two inferior ventricles are the pumping chambers. The atria and ventricle are separated by the atrioventricular vales

Question 45

The right and left sides of the heart

Answer 45

The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood from the heart towards the lungs (Pulmonary system) The left side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it toward the rest of the body parts (systemic system)

Question 46

The vessels

Answer 46

The blood pumped by the heart travels through the extensive conduits of the vessels. Arteries, Veins, Capillaries

Question 47

Arteries

Answer 47

Arteries are the vessels that carry blood away from the heart. They have thick layer of smooth muscle in their walls to withstand the pressure of the forceful heartbeat. Large arteries branch into increasingly smaller arterioles that eventually connect to a bed of capillaries

Question 48

Capillaries

Answer 48

Capillaries are microscopic blood vessels thats walls are only one cell thick. Exchange of gases and nutrients occurs between the alveoli of lungs and the capillary beds of the CV system.Exchange of gases and nutrients also occurs between capillariy beds and tissues throughout the body.

Question 49

Veins

Answer 49

Carry blood from the body parts toward the heart. Are connected to capillary beds by smaller branches called venues Veins and Venules have thinner walls because they are farther from the force of the heartbeat and so experience less pressure on their walls Also have one way valves to prevent blood from flowing back into the system

Question 50

Blood

Answer 50

is composed of plasma and formed elements The formed elements are erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets

Question 51

Plasma

Answer 51

is straw colored liquid that contains water, immune proteins, and other nutrients

Question 52

Erythrocytes

Answer 52

Or red blood cells are a major component of blood and contain the protein hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and helps return carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.

Question 53

Leukocytes

Answer 53

or white blood cells are the immune response agents and defend the body against disease

Question 54

Platelets

Answer 54

responsible for the clotting mechanism

Question 55

Lymphatic vessels and Lymph

Answer 55

lymphatic vessels are linked to lymph nodes and lymphatic capillaries Lymph Vessels similar to veins they are thin-walled and contain one way valves to maintain flow in one direction only

Question 56

Lymphatic Capillaries

Answer 56

are entwined with cardiovascular capillaries and absorb excess tissue fluid and blood plasma that leaks from capillaries This lymph fluid is filtered through hundreds of small organs called lymph nodes distributed throughout the body. Lymph nodes are concentrated in the neck, armpit, and groin and contain lymphocytes that seek out pathogens in the fluid. Lymphocytes make antibodies which target the pathogens so that other cells can destroy them. Filtered lymph fluid is basically cleaned blood plasma and is returned to the cardiovascular system by the veins

Question 57

Heartbeat

Answer 57

is known as the cardiac cycle that ensures that the heart chambers contract in a coordinated way. Starts with the triggering of an impulse within the Sinoatrial (SA) node called the pacemaker and it is located in the upper wall of the right atrium The impulse spreads to the right and left atria, causing them to contract and forcing blood into the ventricles. The impulse then reaches the Atrioventricular node (AV) that is also located in the right atrial wall and travels along the atrioventricular bundle down the right and left branches in the septum and finally along the purkinje fibers in the walls of the ventricle, causing the filled ventricles to contract. Contraction of the atria followed by the ventricles is called SYSTOLE. then followed by DIASTOLE, the rest phase when the chambers relax and refill. External control of the heart if managed in the cardiac center of the brain and modulated by the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine

Question 58

The Flow of Blood through the heart

Answer 58

Blood is pumped from the heart into two separate closed systems. Pulmonary recieves deoxygenated blood into the right atrium from the body by the superior and inferior vena cava. Contraction of the right atrium pumps blood through the right AV valve into right ventricle. Contraction of the right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood up into the pulmonary artery though the pulmonary semilunar valve and to the lungs. Oxygenated blood from the lungs travels by the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. The systemic system carries oxygenated blood when the left atrium contracts forcing blood through the left AV valve into the left ventricle. Contraction of the left ventricle pumps blood through the aortic semilunar valve through the aorta towards the rest of the body. The closing of the av valves makes the lub or first heart sound and the closing of the semilunar valves make the dub or second heart sound.

Question 59

Monitoring Disorders of the Cardiovascular System

Answer 59

Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury and expressed as the maximum pressure over the minimum pressure with an average reading of 120/70 mm Hg.

Question 60

Systole

Answer 60

the contraction of the heart causes the blood to push against the muscular walls of the arteries to a maximum pressure

Question 61

Diastole

Answer 61

when the heart relaxes the elasticity in the vessel walls recoils and the pressure decreases to a minimum

Question 62

Hypertension

Answer 62

High blood pressure can cause rupture of the smaller arterioles and capillaries possible leading to a stroke

Question 63

Atherosclerosis

Answer 63

Is a buildup of plaque in blood vessels that reduces the flow of blood through the vessel and a piece of plaque can travel to smaller vessels causing a blockage. Plaque or clotted blood traveling through vessels is called embolus

Question 64

Stroke

Answer 64

occurs when the normal blood flow to the brain is stopped either by a blockage or by a rupture of a blood vessel causing death of brain tissue

Question 65

Heart Attack

Answer 65

Or Myocardia infarction, occurs when the flow of blood to a part of the heart muscle is blocked causing the cardiac muscle tissue to die

Question 66

Gastrointestinal System

Answer 66

Referred to the digestive system or the alimentary canal located in the abdominal cavity and is specialized for breaking down food for absorption and distribution to the rest of the body Specialized regions and glands perform both mechanical and chemical (enzymatic) digestion blood vessels absorb the digested nutrients, and smooth muscle involved in moving material through the digestive is under parasympathetic nervous system control

Question 67

Roles of Digestion

Answer 67

Functions to break down macromolecules into small nutrient molecules that are then absorbed into the circulatory system and distributed to the cells of the tissues throughout the body Also forms and eliminates undigested waste

Question 68

5 steps of Digestion

Answer 68

ingestion: the intake of food Digestion: the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food Movement of the food through the GI tract through peristalsis Absorption of nutrients into tissue cells Elmination of undigested waste

Question 69

Anatomy and Physiology of the Digestive System

Answer 69

Food enters the system through the mouth where three pairs of salivary glands secrete saliva that contains amylase an enzyme that begins carbohydrate digestion in the mouth. The teeth begin the mechanical breakdown of food by chewing (mastication) and mixing it with enzymes and saliva. The tongue forms a bolus (small parcel of chewed food) and moves it toward the pharynx. The pharynx is a cavity between the mouth and esophagus that serves as a passageway for food and air The bolus is swelled (deglutination) and the epiglottis closes off the opening to the trachea so food only enters the esophagus which is a long muscular tube that carries food to the stomach by a wavelike involuntary smooth muscle contraction called peristalsis. When food reaches the distal potion of the esophagus, the sphincter between the esophagus and stomach relaxes to let food pass into the stomach. The sphincter then contracts preventing stomach acid from backing up into the esophagus (gastric reflux)

Question 70

The stomach

Answer 70

Has colds called rugae that increase the holding capacity of the stomach to about 1 liter. The mechanical mixing action of the stomach mixes the boluses of food with gastric juices to form partially digested liquid called chyme

Question 71

Gastric Juice

Answer 71

A mixture of mucus, hydrochloric acid, and digestive enzymes secreted by the various cells of the stomach. The chief cells secrete pepsinogen Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid Goblet cells secrete mucous

Question 72

Chief Cells

Answer 72

Secrete pepsinogen, an inactive form of pepsin used in protein digestion and the enzyme gastric lipase, which digests fat

Question 73

Parietal cells

Answer 73

secrete hydrochloric acid which converts the inactive pepsinogen to its active pepsin form

Question 74

Goblet cells

Answer 74

in the gastric lining secrete mucous for protection against the highly acidic hydrogen chloride.

Question 75

Gastrin

Answer 75

Hormone secreted in the stomach. Stimulate the secretion of the gastric juices, and the hormone ghrelin stimulates the appetite and promotes storage of fats

Question 76

Functions of the stomach

Answer 76

Stores food boluses, continues the process of mechanical and chemical digestion, and controls the movement of chyme into duodenum of the small intestine

Question 77

Small Intestine

Answer 77

Is about 18 feet in length and has a large surface area created by repeated folds within its walls which enhance digestion and absorption Divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Duodenum is the short section attached to the pyloric sphincter of the stomach

Question 78

As Chyme leaves the stomach

Answer 78

It is acted upon by enzymes from the liver, gall bladder, and pancreas. The live produces alkaline bile secreted by the gall bladder to aid in the emulisification and breakdown of fats. The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which is a mixture of water, salts, bicarbonate, and many digestive enzymes.

Question 79

Large intestine

Answer 79

Includes the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal Chyme leaves the ileum and enters into the cecum. The cecum has a projection known as the appendix, which can play a role in the immune system.

Question 80

The colons division

Answer 80

The colon is divided into four sections: ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid. as feces travels through the colon water is absorbed. Bacteria in the colon metabolize the fecal matter and produce vitamins like vitamin K and is absorbed Fecal waste accumulates and is stored in the rectum until it is ejected through the anus by defecation /