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GLA Y3S1 > General Pathology > Flashcards

General Pathology Flashcards

1
Q

Define Pathology

A

Study of disease

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2
Q

Define disease

A

abnormality of cell/tissue structure and/or function

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3
Q

complications are known as what

A

sequelae

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4
Q

what enzymes aids DNA replication

A

DNA polymerase

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5
Q

what enzyme aids transcription (DNA > RNA)

A

RNA Polymerase

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6
Q

what are the different types of epithelial cells

A

squamous glandular and solid organs such as the liver kidney and thyroid

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7
Q

types of connective tissue

A

fibrous
blood vessels
fat
muscle
bone
cartilage

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8
Q

what are some examples of external environmental stresses

A

physical factors
chemical factors
infection
nutrition etc.

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9
Q

what are some examples of internal environmental stresses

A

more or less functional demand
hormones/metabolic
immune response

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10
Q

define atrophy

A

when there or less cells or they are reduced in size

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11
Q

what is hyperplasia

A

when there are more cells

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12
Q

what is hypertrophy

A

when the cells increase in size

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13
Q

what is metaplasia

A

when the differentiated cells transform into different differentiated cells

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14
Q

what is dysplasia

A

abnormal growth of the cells

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15
Q

physical agents caused by mechanical trauma in the mechanisms of disease

A

stricture, adhesions, hernia and criminal

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16
Q

what damage do chemicals and drugs do to cells

A

damage various cells and organelles and processes such as disrupting the cell membranes (osmotic damage), protein production or folding

this can include:
poisons like cyanide
environmental chemicals such as insecticides
occupational hazards like asbestos

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17
Q

hypoxia

A

deficiency of oxygen

causes:
- anaemia
- respiratory failure

this disrupts the oxidative respiratory processes in mitochondria in the cell and so decreases ATP

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18
Q

Define Ischaemia

A

reduction in blood supply to the tissue

cause:
blockage of arterial supply to venous drainage e.g. atherosclerosis

results in:
the depletion of not just oxygen as with hypoxia alone, it also depletes nutrients like glucose

DAMAGE IS MORE RAPID AND SEVERE

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19
Q

What type of sensitivity is anaphylaxis and autoimmune reactions

A

type 1 hypersensitivity IgE mediated

Type 2: antibodies directed towards antigens on cells
Type 3: antigen-antibody complexes and their deposition

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20
Q

what does damage to mitochondria lead to

A

disrupted aerobic respiration/ ATP synthesis

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21
Q

what does damage to the cell membrane lead to

A

disrupted ion concentration especially increases calcium 2+ ions

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22
Q

what does damage to the cytoplasm and ribosomes lead to

A

Disrupted enzyme and structural protein synthesis and architecture

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23
Q

What does damage to the nucleus lead to

A

disrupted DNA maintenance and DNA damage

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24
Q

oxidative stress mechanism

A

oxidative stress is caused by ROS also known as free radicals
This is normally formed in small amounts as a by-product of respiration
however
it can be formed pathologically due to the absorption of radiation. toxic chemicals and hypoxia

individuals who lack antioxidants can also make damage more likely

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25
Q

reversible cell injury: Cloudy swelling

A

osmotic disturbance, loss od energy-dependant Na pump leads Na influx and build up of intracellular metabolites

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26
Q

reversible cell injury: fatty change

A

accumulation of lipid vacuoles in cytoplasm caused by disruption of fatty acid metabolism, specially the liver

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27
Q

the mechanism of necrosis

A

This is caused by injury due to external stimuli and is categorized an uncontrolled cell death which means it is always pathological. The contents of the cell leak due to breakdown of the cell membrane so therefore it often elicits an inflammatory response.
Histological changes:
- Cell swelling can be seen, along with vacuolation and disruption of the membranes of the cell and its organelles which include the mitochondria, lysosomes, and ER.
- You will see the release of cell contents (cell lysis) including the enzymes causing adjacent damage and eliciting acute inflammation
Nuclear changes on histological slides include:
- Nuclear fading
- Nuclear shrinkage
- Nuclear fragmentation

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28
Q

apoptosis mechanisms

A

APOPTOSIS:
This is often a normal physiological process that is used during development and embryogenesis. However it can be pathological in the case of viral infections however it is always controlled. Due to this the cell contents do not leak as the cell membrane remains intact and therefore does not elicit an inflammatory response.

29
Q

coagulative necrosis

A

firm, tissue outline retained
- haemorrhage due to the blockage of venous drainage
- gangrenous: larger areas especially lower leg

30
Q

colliquituve necrosis

A

tissue becomes liquid and its structure is lost, this occurs in the infective abscess and cerebral infarct

31
Q

caseous necrosis

A

combination of coagulative and colliquitive, appearing “cheese-like” this is classical of granulomatous inflammation especially in TB

32
Q

fat necrosis

A

due to action of lipase on fatty tissue

33
Q

apoptosis morphology

A
  • cell shrinkage
  • chromatin condensation which packages up the nucleus
  • membranes of cell and mitochondria etc. remain intact so dont cause inflammation
  • cytoplasmic blebs form and break off to form apoptotic bodies which are phagocytosed by macrophages
34
Q

what causes redness at sites of infection

A

dilation of the small blood vessels

35
Q

what causes heat during infection

A

increased blood flow due to the vasodilation and fever

36
Q

what causes swelling during infection

A

accumulation of fluid in the extracellular matrix

37
Q

what causes pain during an infection

A

stretching of tissue due to oedema, mediators such as bradykinin and serotonin stimulate pain receptors

38
Q

what is loss of function due to in infection

A

movement is inhibited by pain, severe swelling can immobilise the inflamed area

39
Q

what features effect vascular permeability

A
  • contraction of the endothelial cells
  • increased inter endothelial spaces
  • mediated by histamine, bradykinin and substance P
  • endothelial injury in severe injuries
  • injury can be caused by neutrophils
  • increased transcytosis
40
Q

how is the acute response terminated

A
  • removal of stimulus
  • neutrophils have a short half life
  • variation in cytokine stimuli
  • neural impulses
  • macrophages are activated to perform different functions
41
Q

how is the acute response terminated

A
  • removal of stimulus
  • neutrophils have a short half life
  • variation in cytokine stimuli
  • neural impulses
  • macrophages are activated to perform different functions
42
Q

examples of cellular derived mediators of inflammation

A

vasoactive amines (histamines and serotonin)
arachidonic acid metabolites
nitric oxide
cytokines (TNF, IL-1, IL-6 and chemokines)

43
Q

what are some examples of pals a protein derived mediators of inflammation

A

complement
coagulation and kinin systems

44
Q

PCR is used for what

A

demonstration of large scale quantitative changes in DNA such as clonality in lymphoma

45
Q

FISH is used for

A

diagnostic translocations (e.g. Ewings sarcoma) and increased gene copy number (Her2)

46
Q

What is next generation sequencing used for

A

broader panels to look for multiple gene mutations in the same specimen (e.g. colorectal cancer for BRAF, NRAS, MSI etc.)

46
Q

What is next generation sequencing used for

A

broader panels to look for multiple gene mutations in the same specimen (e.g. colorectal cancer for BRAF, NRAS, MSI etc.)

47
Q

what is anomaly

A

defined as any deviation from the expected or average form and/or function which is interpreted as abnormal

major- those with cosmetic or surgical consequences

Minor - those with little impact on the individual well being

48
Q

what is a malformation

A

a morphological defect of an organ, or region of the body, resulting from an intrinsically abnormal developmental process

49
Q

what is an cyanotic congenital heart defect

A

left to right shunt, this means there is no signs of cyanosis in the early stages but an uncorrected VSD can increase pulmonary resistance leading to the reversal of the shunt and corresponding cyanosis

50
Q

spina bifida

A

defect of the neural tube where a portion of the tube fails to develop or close properly

this is known as encephalacele if its towards the caudal end of the tube

51
Q

what is the definition of a syndrome

A

multiple anomalies thought to be pathologically related

52
Q

name some characteristics of Down syndrome

A

mental retardation
low set ears
abundant neck skin
single palmar crease
intestinal stenosis
hypotonia
umbilical hernia
predisposition to leukemias
gap between first and second toes
congenital heart defects
protruding tongue
epicentral folds and flat facial profile

53
Q

ectopia

A

meaning out of place

an abnormal location or position of an organ or a tissue most often occurring congenitally but can occur as a result of injury

54
Q

ectopia cordis

A

displacement of the heart outside the body

55
Q

ectopic thyroid tissue

A

nodules of mature thyroid tissue located elsewhere in the neck

56
Q

ectopic pregnancy

A

implantation occurring in the Fallopian tube rather than in the endometrium

57
Q

hamartoma

A

tumour-like malformation composed of mature normal cells in usual location but as a disorganised mass

EXAMPLE:
Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome
- mucocutaneous pigmentation
- Hamartomatous polyposis - jejunum and ileum common sited
Mutation STK11 gene on chromosome 19p13.3

58
Q

diverticulum

A

circumscribed pouch/sac caused by herniation of lining mucosa of an organ though defect in muscular coat

examples:
- heckles diverticulum
- sigmoid colon diverticula.diverticular disease

59
Q

intussusception

A

invagination of a portion of the intestine at most commonly the ileocaecal valve

60
Q

what are cellular adaptions to stress

A

are reversible changes in the number/size/type of cells in response to changes in their environment

61
Q

what are physiological adaptions to stress

A

are responses of cells to normal stimulation by hormones or endogenous chemical mediators

62
Q

what are pathological adaptions to stress

A

responses to stress that allow cells to modulate their structure/function and avoid (or reduce) injury

63
Q

benign neoplasm

A
  • a neoplasm that grows without invading adjacent tissue or spreading to distant sites
  • usually well-circumscribed due to lack of invasion of surrounding tissues
64
Q

malignant neoplasm

A
  • invades surrounding normal tissue
  • spreads to different sites
  • not well circumscribed
  • malignant neoplasm (tumour) and cancer are synonyms
65
Q

dysplasia

A

abnormality of epithelial cells or melanocytes in surface or lining epithelium

disordered growth in which cells fail to differentiate fully, but are not contained by the basement membrane

66
Q

arterial thrombus

A

white thrombus - many platelets, small amounts of fibrin (reflects high flow)

67
Q

venous thrombus

A

red thrombus as many fibrin with trapped red cell

67
Q

venous thrombus

A

red thrombus as many fibrin with trapped red cell

GLA Y3S1 (13 decks)

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