General Psychology Flashcards

Question

A person with severe abdominal pain says they'll wait it out and go to the doctor in a few days.

Answer 1

Denial. That person is exhibiting a pathological psychodynamic ego defence mechanism which distorts their reality to make them feel better. It can be called pathological denial. Blocking or disowning thoughts which may be painful or may lead to emotional distress.

Answer 2

Distortion: pathological reshaping of reality to accommodate person. 1. minor; distortions in perception of self, body or others which may be used to maintain self-esteem, which can also be reduced to different modes- -Devaluation: exaggerated negative qualities to self or others -Idealization: exaggerated positive qualities to self or others -Omnipotence: acting as if self is special or powerful 2. major; major misattribution in self-image -Autistic fantasies; excessive daydreaming to cope -Projective identification; falsely attributing another bad things they themselves are doing, however believe themselves to be correct as they believe their actions are justified 3. dysregulation; severe breaks from reality, psychotic, dangerous -Delusional projection; psychotic and exaggerated delusions to others -Psychotic denial; dangerously impaired denial of reality -Psychotic distortions; dangerously distorted perception of reality

Answer 3

Psychotic delusion. That person is exhibiting a dysregulated pathological psychodynamic ego defence mechanism which severely distorts their reality. It can be called a psychotic delusion.

Answer 4

Projective identification. That person is exhibiting a major pathological psychodynamic defence mechanism which distorts their reality. It can be called a major distortion of reality. That person may have an unhealthy outlook on men; perceiving all of them as cheaters, which she may be using the cheating she induced to justify her actions. She may be attempting to circumvent what to her is an inevitable heartbreak by cheating first and projecting that his cheating, later to identify with the cheating she induced.

Answer 5

Minor devaluation. That person is exhibiting a minor pathological psychodynamic defence mechanism which distorts their reality. It can be called a minor distortion of reality.

Answer 6

Reaction formation. That person is exhibiting an immature psychodynamic defence mechanism which distorts their reality. It can be reaction formation To cope with homophobia, the closeted homosexual became homophobic to do the polar opposite of their uncomfortable feelings.

Answer 7

Projection. That person is exhibiting an immature psychodynamic defence mechanism which distorts their reality. It can be called simple projection. To cope with being a homosexual in a homophobic environment, the closeted homosexual began accusing their friends of being gay.

Answer 8

Regression. That person is exhibiting an immature psychodynamic defence mechanism which distorts their reality. It can be called regression. The person attempts to return to an earlier libidinal phase where they would feel safe, relaxed and have their needs met.

Answer 9

An ego defence mechanism becomes pathological only when its persistent use leads to maladaptive behavior such that the physical and/or mental health of the individual is adversely affected

Answer 10

Altruism - helping others in a way which is not compensating Anticipation - Realistic planning and acceptance of future discomfort. A positive outlook on the future and anticipation for the good of the future. Sublimation - Converting anxiety arousing (and usually socially undesirable) emotions into something constructive and socially acceptable

Answer 11

Gordon Allport Cardinal traits: traits which can be used to define and label a person due to their prevalence one or two of these traits can be used to define a person due to how much they appear in their behaviour. Defines and predicts their behaviour as the most important part Central traits: traits which are fundamental to a persons personality but are not the most dominant compared to others. people have 5-10 of these to be defined but define the person Secondary traits: traits which are only relevant based on the context and the environment the person finds themselves in general fears of public speaking, hating waiting in lines

Answer 12

Otherwise known as the ocean model. O - Openness to imagination, new actions and new ideas; High scorers: curious, wide range of interests, independent, imaginative, creative Low scorers: Practical, conventional, prefers routine C - Conscientiousness, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, pragmatism, goals High scorers: Hardworking, goal oriented, organized, dependable, Low scorers: Impulsive, careless, disorganized E - Extroversion, A - Agreeableness to cooperate, trustworthy and good natured high scoring - helpful, trusting and empathetic low scoring: critical uncooperative and suspicious N - Neuroticism, tendency towards emotional instability high scorers: anxious, unhappy, prone to negative emotions low scorers: calm, even-tempered, secure

Answer 13

The three core conditions, empathy, unconditional positive regard and congruence

Answer 14

They cross the blood brain barrier and interact with the neurotransmitter levels in the brain, in turn affecting mood, judgement and behaviour. Agonists: increase neurotransmitter site activity by mimicking neurotransmitters, like morphine. Or by blocking the reuptake of certain neurotransmitters, enhancing their effect (SSRIS)

Answer 15

Glutamate. Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter which is used in learning and high amounts may contribute to schizophrenia.

Answer 16

GABA. The main inhibitory neurotransmitter. involved in memory, learning and sleep. Alcohol and anti-anxiety drugs bind to GABA receptors and cause sedation and lack of worry.

Answer 17

Critical in functions such as mood, hunger and sleep. Aphetamines, Methenthetamines, Caffeine causes a spike in Norepinephrine

Answer 18

Motor function and feeling pleasure. neurotransmitter drugs which increase dopamine treat parkinsons, while reducing is for schizophrenia

Answer 19

Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Its biological function is complex and multifaceted, modulating mood, cognition, reward, learning, memory, and numerous physiological processes such as vomiting and vasoconstriction. After carrying a message, serotonin is usually reabsorbed by the nerve cells (known as "reuptake"). SSRIs work by blocking ("inhibiting") reuptake, meaning more serotonin is available to pass further messages between nearby nerve cells.

Answer 20

Reduces pain and increases appetite. Result of THC as it causes euphoria and an increase in appetite. When smoking weed. neurotransmitter

Answer 21

Maladaptive defence mechanisms where positive and negative cognitive constructs of objects conflict and do not co-exist, leading to black and white polarization of the same object or concept. Dramatic changes in behaviour corresponding to mood trigger activations and fears. Devaluation to protect self-concept or idealisation and apotheosis to protect self-concept. Also used as a defence mechanism against guilt by borderline personality disorder, as all bad things are deserved by the bad person- completely disregarding the existence of the good.

Answer 22

It is a major pathological defence mechanism in which a person projects a bad quality onto another person (quality which they may be feeling themselves) until the other person finally begins having the same quality, in turn justifying the existence of the initial quality and then using their change to identify with their initial quality. "so I knew you were cheating on me all along, well I cheated too before you" "see, you are a terrible person look you're angry (just as much as they were before)"

Answer 23

It is the division of something into several compartments and genres. Depending on the context in psychology.

Answer 24

The DSM-5 lists nine key narcissistic traits: exaggerated feelings of superiority and self-importance regular fantasies about personal power, intelligence, success, or attractiveness a firm belief in personal specialness a strong need for attention, praise, and admiration from other people entitled behavior, such as a desire for special treatment a habit of using manipulation tactics low empathy or disinterest in the emotional needs of others a tendency to envy others or assume others envy them arrogance and scorn for others COVERT 1. A reserved or self-effacing attitude 2. Humility or a tendency to put themselves down 3. Smugness or quiet superiority 4. Passive-aggressive behavior 5. Envy of others and/or feeling that they deserve what other people have 6. A lack of empathy for the feelings or situations of other people 7. A tendency to step in and help others out of a desire for recognition GRANDIOSE 1. A need for admiration 2. A lack of empathy 3. An exaggerated sense of importance 4. Persistent fantasies of increased success, power, happiness, love, intelligence, or physical appearance 5. A belief that they are so special that they should only associate with other special people 6. A belief that they should receive special attention, treatment, and gifts 7. A tendency to take advantage of other people or situations to fulfill their goals 8. Lacking care, compassion, and empathy for others 9. Being envious of others and thinking that others are envious of them 10. Appearing arrogant, conceited, or self-absorbed MALIGNANT Being extremely arrogant and self-centered Disregarding the feelings and needs of other people Manipulating, using, or exploiting others for personal gain or pleasure Having an extreme need for power Acts of revenge against those who criticize them Fantasizing about ways to obtain more power or dominance over others Lacking conscience, regret, or remorse for their actions Being cruel and taking pleasure in the pain of others High levels of aggression towards other people Paranoia or mistrust of others

Answer 25

Individuals can either score high or low in openness, which can determine their openness to internalizing new ideas and experiences. High in Openness: Creative thinkers, imaginative problem solvers who consider more solutions than the average, curious, abstract thinkers, much more likely to be more extroverted more likely to take risks more comfortable with improvising and uncertainty, more likely to use abstract solutions to a problem, more likely to have a curious mind, more likely to have a wide range of interests, more likely to be independent thinkers high scorers tend to have a slightly higher IQ imaginative, creative more likely to seek "sensations" and experiences more likely to be liberal and progressive Low in Openness: Practical, conventional, prefers routine less likely to take risks more likely to stay the same without change more likely to hold conservative beliefs less likely to change their core beliefs more likely to find change stressful and anxiety inducing less likely to seek new experiences

Answer 26

Autonomous (Secure): Comfortable in a warm, loving and emotionally close relationship. Depends on partner and allows partner to depend on them; is available for partner in times of need. Accepts partner’s need for separateness without feeling rejected or threatened; can be close and also independent (“dependent–independent”). Trusting, empathic, tolerant of differences, and forgiving. Communicates emotions and needs honestly and openly; attuned to partner’s needs and responds appropriately; does not avoid conflict. Manages emotions well; not overly upset about relationship issues. Insight, resolution and forgiveness about past relationship issues and hurts. Sensitive, warm and caring parent; attuned to child’s cues and needs; children are securely attached.[ anxious ambivalent Insecure in intimate relationships; constantly worried about rejection and abandonment; preoccupied with relationship; “hyperactivates” attachment needs and behavior. Needy; requires ongoing reassurance; want to “merge” with partner, which scares partner away. Ruminates about unresolved past issues from family-of-origin, which intrudes into present perceptions and relationships (fear, hurt, anger, rejection). Overly sensitive to partner’s actions and moods; takes partner’s behavior too personally. Highly emotional; can be argumentative, combative, angry and controlling; poor personal boundaries. Communication is not collaborative; unaware of own responsibility in relationship issues; blames others. Unpredictable and moody; connects through conflict, “stirs the pot.” Inconsistent attunement with own children, who are likely to be anxiously attached. Anxious avoidant Emotionally distant and rejecting in an intimate relationship; keeps partner at arm’s length; partner always wanting more closeness; ” “deactivates” attachment needs, feelings and behaviors. Equates intimacy with loss of independence; prefers autonomy to togetherness. Not able to depend on partner or allow partner to “lean on” them; independence is a priority. Communication is intellectual, not comfortable talking about emotions; avoids conflict, then explodes. Cool, controlled, stoic; compulsively self-sufficient; narrow emotional range; prefers to be alone. Good in a crisis; non-emotional, takes charge. Emotionally unavailable as parent; disengaged and detached; children are likely to have avoidant attachments. Fearful-avoidant attachment: A person with a fearful avoidant attachment lives in an ambivalent state of being afraid of being both too close to or too distant from others. They attempt to keep their feelings at bay but are unable to; they can't just avoid their anxiety or run away from their feelings.

Answer 27

Fluid intelligence is intelligence which is measured through culture free psychometric tests. Things like IQ Crystallized intelligence is a measurement of previous knowledge.

Answer 28

Conscientiousness is the quality of being able to do whatever you do well and thoroughly. High Conscientiousness: organisation, pragmatism, tidiness, planning, high crystallized intelligence, if neurotic, then perfectionistic and critical of others critical of their own failures take prophylactic measures perform well academically empathetic tidy lower IQ, hence the need to be conscientious phenomenon organise and plan homes have better lighting healthier relationships less likely to be unhealthy less likely to cheat less likely to divorce happier on average than non-conscientious individuals Low Conscientiousness: less critical of their own failures messy underperformers impulsive purchases unhealthy habit forming drug abusing impulsive criminal activity neuroticism lower life expectancy

Answer 29

Haptics are the touching of objects. Creating barriers with objects against people means that you are uncomfortable with that person and want to create space.

Answer 30

The limbic system is the part of the brain involved in our behavioural and emotional responses, especially when it comes to behaviours we need for survival: feeding, reproduction and caring for our young, and fight or flight responses. The limbic system takes over in times of distress and thus is a reliable way to decipher comfort and discomfort which may usually be hidden away.

Answer 31

Freeze, flight, fight. Freeze to stop alerting predators with movement flight to remove themselves from the predator fight for survival against the predator When a person experiences a limbic response to psychological stress, they will exhibit pacifying behaviours which calm them down momentarily. This is done by stimulating nerves located all over the body which effectively reduce heart rate.

Answer 32

It is a pacifying behaviour used to circumvent the emotional discomfort of fear, insecurity and discomfort. This is a sign of discomfort with the situation. This is the most common and powerful limbic response used to reduce stress. This is due to the neck being rich in nerve ending which when stimulated reduce blood pressure and heart rate and calm the individual down. Even a brief touch of the neck can have a significant impact on the overall psychological distress level. Stimulation of the vagus nerve which when massaged will slow down heart rate.

Answer 33

Limbic response to struggling with something and failing to come up with an answer, or undergoing extreme discomfort.

Answer 34

It is a pacifying behaviour used to circumvent the emotional discomfort of fear, insecurity and doubt in something. This is a sign of discomfort with the situation.

Answer 35

It is a pacifying behaviour used to circumvent the emotional discomfort. This is a sign of discomfort with the situation.

Answer 36

It is a pacifying behaviour using the facial nerves to circumvent feeling nervous, irritable, or concerned about a particular situation.

Answer 37

Pacifying behaviour using nerves inside the cheeks. Strong pacifier to release stress and is usually present after getting away with something serious.

Answer 38

This is a highly accurate pacifying behaviour which predicts anxiety and discomfort with the situation. It happens often due to the low profile nature of the pacifying behaviour, as it's usually done under a table where no one can see.

Answer 39

The feet. Even long term liars don't pay attention to their feet as they are in no ones view during conversations, and are thus the most revealing.

Answer 40

This signifies true intent. The direction of the foot is the direction the person wants to go towards.

Answer 41

This signifies comfort as crossed legs make a person off balance and thus vulnerable to predators. If the person reverts back to standing on two feet, that means that they are no longer comfortable as they are uncomfortable with being vulnerable in that environment. This is especially true when you observe two people crossing their legs at the same time, as they are both comfortable around each other to make themselves vulnerable in their presence.

Answer 42

It can either signify discomfort with the person or comfort depending on the height and position of the knee. If uncomfortable, haptic barriers may be impossible due to no objects, so when the legs are crossed, the knee may be used as a barrier between them and the other person. If comfortable then the knee will be down and will not be in the way between the two people.

Answer 43

It means that the person wants to be elsewhere. Favourable opinions are unlikely to be formed in this state as the person would like to leave immediately.

Answer 44

This is a limbic response used to soothe them by kicking. This is a sign of discomfort with the situation

Answer 45

It signifies discomfort with the situation or insecurity within them. When a person gets more comfortable with the situation they will unlock their ankles under the chair.

Answer 46

It signifies a significant limbic freeze response and discomfort with the situation or insecurity within them, anxiety or concern with what might happen.

Answer 47

It signifies that they are both comfortable with one another in the conversation and are both invested in the topic. Conversely, if the gap is being widened by one of the parties form being close, then the party is showing discomfort and disagreement with what is being said.

Answer 48

It signifies that the person is uncomfortable with the other party. This barrier can be made using objects or by simple crossing of the arms. The tighter the grip on our arms with our hands, the more uncomfortable the person might be.

Answer 49

This is a limbic response to create distance and protect the vital organs in our torso from predators. This person is creating a barrier from themselves and their environment.

Answer 50

The four lobes of the brain are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes the frontal lobe is responsible for higher cognitive functions such as memory, emotions, impulse control, problem solving, social interaction, and motor function. the parietal lobe is responsible for processing somatosensory information from the body; this includes touch, pain, temperature, and the sense of limb position temporal lobes are most commonly associated with processing auditory information and with the encoding of memory the occipital lobe is the visual processing area of the brain. It is associated with visuospatial processing, distance and depth perception, color determination, object and face recognition, and memory formation

Answer 51

1. It is the part of the brain devoted to controlling movements (motor skills) 2. The motor cortex is an area within the cerebral cortex of the brain that is involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements. The motor cortex can be divided into the primary motor cortex and the nonprimary motor cortex. The primary motor cortex is critical for initiating motor movements. 3. The motor cortex is the only motor control centre above the spinal cord which can directly communicate with most of the other motor control structures such as the thalamus, basal ganglia, brain stem, and spinal cord. This region also contains an inverted representation of the opposite half of the body, known as a motor homunculus.

Answer 52

1. The somatosensory cortex is a region of the brain which is responsible for receiving and processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain. 2. This cortex is located within the which is located in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe, and lies behind the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe. Border between frontal and parietal lobe. PRIMARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX This region is also responsible for being able to perceive pressure, through judging the degrees of pressure put on the body. Another function of this area is that it can help us determine the weight of an object by looking at it. The somatosensory cortex receives tactile information from the body, including sensations such as touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. This sensory information is then carried to the brain via neural pathways to the spinal cord, brainstem, and thalamus. This information is then projected to the somatosensory cortex, which in turn has numerous connections with other brain areas in order to process the sensory information. The primary neurons are the sensory receptors within the periphery of the somatosensory cortex which are able to detect various stimuli such as touch or temperature. The secondary neurons are located within the spinal cord and brainstem and act as a relay station. SECONDARY SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX Posterior to the primary somatosensory cortex lies the secondary somatosensory cortex. This region of the Parietal lobe seems to be serve as an association area for sensory input. It is involved with episodic memory, visuospatial processing, reflections upon self, and aspects of consciousness. This region is believed to not only be connected to the primary somatosensory cortex, but also receives direct projections from the thalamus.

Answer 53

Dendrites Soma Axon Axonic terminals Synaptic gaps The soma is the main body of the cell. It is the part which contains the nucleus of the neuron cell. The axon is the long slender tube which is connected to the soma, and it is covered in the myelin sheath which is used to facilitate faster communication The dendrites are the tree like branches which receive signals from other neurons Terminal buttons are where the messages are passed from to other neurons in the connection While the synaptic gaps are where the neurons communicate via the exchange of neurotransmitters The neuron cells communicate in messages called Reaction Potential

Answer 54

The cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) covers the brain and cushions it from shock inside the skull. It filters the waste created by the brain and provides nutrients to the central nervous system. It maintains a neutral buoyancy (floating), which is the maintenance of density of the liquid to be equal to the density of the brain, so that the brain doesn't collapse under it's own weight. Everyone has 150ml of CSF at any given time in their body, and it is a clear liquid created by the choroid plexus. Archanoid Granulations absorbs CSF into the blood once it has finished circulating The CSF system has 4 different ventricles, and below the 4th, the CSF flows into the brainstem Irregularities in CSF production can cause too much of CSF around the brain (hydrocephaly)

Answer 55

BBB is the part of the brain where capillaries are, which disallow for large objects such as bacteria from entering, but allow for smaller objects like molecules (glucose). Crossing the barrier is what is needed for a drug to be psychoactive

Answer 56

It is usually between 43-45cm long. It has CSF.

Answer 57

It is located in the lower half of the brain stem. It is the area where a significant number of axons pass through the brain and the spinal chord. It regulates autonomic functions of the body, which are: -heart beat -blood pressure -breathing -swallowing -sneezing -coughing

Answer 58

The cerebellum is important for making postural adjustments in order to maintain balance. ... One major function of the cerebellum is to coordinate the timing and force of these different muscle groups to produce fluid limb or body movements. Motor learning. The cerebellum is important for motor learning.

Answer 59

It was an experiment conducted by Mary Ainsworth in the 1970s. 1. A mother and their infant would be in a room. The mother would leave the room and a stranger would enter the room. The mother would return to the room again and the infant's reaction would determine the quality of their care. 2. Contributed to the research of 4 different attachment styles. Based on the responses the researchers observed, Ainsworth described three major styles of attachment: secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment. Later, researchers Main and Solomon (1986) added a fourth attachment style called disorganized-insecure attachment based on their own research. > Anxious Ambivalent - inconsistent caregiving. As a result of poor parental availability, these children cannot depend on their primary caregiver to be there when they need them.> > Avoidant attachment: Children with an avoidant attachment tend to avoid parents or caregivers, showing no preference between a caregiver and a complete stranger. This attachment style might be a result of abusive or neglectful caregivers. Children who are punished for relying on a caregiver will learn to avoid seeking help in the future. > Secure attachment: Children who can depend on their caregivers show distress when separated and joy when reunited. Although the child may be upset, they feel assured that the caregiver will return. When frightened, securely attached children are comfortable seeking reassurance from caregivers. This is the most common attachment style.

Answer 60

Posterior part of the brain is the back. Anterior is the front. Superior is the top. Inferior is the bottom.

Answer 61

Inferior part of the structure is where the Medulla Oblangata is, and it is where the spinal cord is met. It regulates autonomic functions of the body, which are: -heart beat -blood pressure -breathing -swallowing -sneezing -coughing Above the Medulla there is the pons. The pons contains nuclei that relay signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum, along with nuclei that deal primarily with sleep, respiration, swallowing, bladder control, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movement, facial expressions, facial sensation, and posture. Above the pons there is the midbrain (mesencephalon) midbrain has the 4th ventricle narrowed where the 3rd ventricle is connected. The midbrain serves important functions in motor movement, particularly movements of the eye, and in auditory and visual processing.

Answer 62

The posterior part of the brain containing the thalamus, hypothalamus and the pineal gland. THALAMUS All information from your body's senses (except smell) must be processed through your thalamus before being sent to your brain's cerebral cortex for interpretation. HYPOTHALAMUS Its main function is to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis. It does its job by directly influencing your autonomic nervous system or by managing hormones. releasing hormones. maintaining daily physiological cycles. controlling appetite. managing sexual behavior. regulating emotional responses. regulating body temperature. PINEAL GLAND The main function of the pineal gland is to receive information about the state of the light-dark cycle from the environment and convey this information to produce and secrete the hormone melatonin.

Answer 63

An intense fear of abandonment, even going to extreme measures to avoid real or imagined separation or rejection A pattern of unstable intense relationships, such as idealizing someone one moment and then suddenly believing the person doesn't care enough or is cruel Rapid changes in self-identity and self-image that include shifting goals and values, and seeing yourself as bad or as if you don't exist at all Periods of stress-related paranoia and loss of contact with reality, lasting from a few minutes to a few hours Impulsive and risky behavior, such as gambling, reckless driving, unsafe sex, spending sprees, binge eating or drug abuse, or sabotaging success by suddenly quitting a good job or ending a positive relationship Suicidal threats or behavior or self-injury, often in response to fear of separation or rejection Wide mood swings lasting from a few hours to a few days, which can include intense happiness, irritability, shame or anxiety Ongoing feelings of emptiness Inappropriate, intense anger, such as frequently losing your temper, being sarcastic or bitter, or having physical fights

Answer 64

Bipolar I disorder. You've had at least one manic episode that may be preceded or followed by hypomanic or major depressive episodes. In some cases, mania may trigger a break from reality (psychosis). Bipolar II disorder. You've had at least one major depressive episode and at least one hypomanic episode, but you've never had a manic episode. Cyclothymic disorder. You've had at least two years — or one year in children and teenagers — of many periods of hypomania symptoms and periods of depressive symptoms (though less severe than major depression). Other types. These include, for example, bipolar and related disorders induced by certain drugs or alcohol or due to a medical condition, such as Cushing's disease, multiple sclerosis or stroke. Bipolar disorders tend to have several different "modes" in which a person acts differently depending on the episode. During a period of depression, your symptoms may include: feeling sad, hopeless or irritable most of the time lacking energy difficulty concentrating and remembering things loss of interest in everyday activities feelings of emptiness or worthlessness feelings of guilt and despair feeling pessimistic about everything self-doubt being delusional, having hallucinations and disturbed or illogical thinking lack of appetite difficulty sleeping waking up early suicidal thoughts OR feeling very happy, elated or overjoyed talking very quickly feeling full of energy feeling self-important feeling full of great new ideas and having important plans being easily distracted being easily irritated or agitated being delusional, having hallucinations and disturbed or illogical thinking not feeling like sleeping not eating doing things that often have disastrous consequences – such as spending large sums of money on expensive and sometimes unaffordable items making decisions or saying things that are ou

Answer 65

Psychopathy. Someone with antisocial personality disorder will typically be manipulative, deceitful and reckless, and will not care for other people's feelings. Like other types of personality disorder, antisocial personality disorder is on a spectrum, which means it can range in severity from occasional bad behaviour to repeatedly breaking the law and committing serious crimes. SIGNS OF APD Signs of antisocial personality disorder A person with antisocial personality disorder may: exploit, manipulate or violate the rights of others lack concern, regret or remorse about other people's distress behave irresponsibly and show disregard for normal social behaviour have difficulty sustaining long-term relationships be unable to control their anger lack guilt, or not learn from their mistakes blame others for problems in their lives repeatedly break the law 3 OR MORE NEEDED FOR APD Antisocial personality disorder is diagnosed after rigorous detailed psychological assessment. A diagnosis can only be made if the person is aged 18 years or older and at least 3 of the following criteria behaviours apply: repeatedly breaking the law repeatedly being deceitful being impulsive or incapable of planning ahead being irritable and aggressive having a reckless disregard for their safety or the safety of others being consistently irresponsible lack of remorse

Answer 66

Melanie Klein 1. Object relations theory in psychoanalytic psychology is the process of developing a psyche in relation to others in the childhood environment 2. It maintains that the infant's relationship with the mother primarily determines the formation of its personality in adult life.[2] Particularly, the need for attachment is the bedrock of the development of the self or the psychic organization that creates the sense of identity.

Answer 67

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Ivan Pavlov - Pavlov's dogs. Learning through association. Unconditioned stimulus is what we can hear/see/feel. EXAMPLE: Loud bang. Which leads to an unconditioned response physiologically. EXAMPLE: Jumping at the loud bang. Classical Conditioning is an example of how humans learn to associate neutral stimulus (regular pairing), with a stimulus which produces a physiological response, which is called a conditioned response. Pavlov observed dogs salivating (unconditioned response) at the sight of food (unconditioned stimulus). So Ivan Pavlov presented food with a ring of a bell (neutral stimulus, for now), and as time passed of consistently ringing the bell with food (repeated regular pairing), the dogs began associating the bell with the food and drooling over the ring (conditioned stimulus leading to a conditioned response). HISTORICAL EXAMPLE: Little Albert. Watson and Raynor study. Little Albert was a baby who was conditioned to fear white rabbits through repeated banging of a hammer behind him whenever Albert noticed the white rabbit. Albert began crying. Rabbit - Neutral Stimulus Hammer Bang Fear - Unconditioned response Repeated Pairing = conditioned stimulus and conditioned response. --------------------------------------------------------- OPERANT CONDITIONING - B.F Skinner - "skinner's box" - Rats learning through consequences, positive and negative reinforcement. - Used in Prisons to condition good behaviour through tokens Rats would be placed in a box with an electrical grid. Behaviour which is positively and negatively reinforced would prosper, whereas punished behaviour would die out. Overly simplistic, reductive, relies on animals and does not consider the element of human thought in behaviour.

Answer 68

Psychoanalysis was formed by Sigmund Freud. He proposed "die traumdetung". Dream analysis.

Answer 69

transference—the emotional relationship formed between the patient and the analyst; "falling in love" with the analyst, or temporarily substituting the analyst for the object of desire, etc.

Answer 70

Responsible and reliable Organized and self-disciplined Sets clear goals and prioritizes time effectively Follows through on commitments Dependable and able to work independently Careful and thorough in work Pays attention to details Achievement-oriented and persistent Less likely to procrastinate Less likely to engage in impulsive behavior.

Answer 71

May be perceived as rigid or inflexible May be overly perfectionistic May have difficulty delegating tasks May have difficulty relaxing or taking leisure time May be too focused on work and neglect other aspects of life May have difficulty adapting to change or new situations May be seen as overly critical of themselves and others May be more prone to stress and burnout May have difficulty with spontaneity May be seen as less outgoing or less sociable May be seen as less creative or less open to new ideas.

Answer 72

Open-minded and curious Interested in exploring new ideas and experiences Creative and imaginative Intellectually curious and open to new perspectives Appreciative of art and beauty Willing to consider unconventional and abstract ideas Tends to be flexible and adaptable Has a wide range of interests Tends to be more open to change and less resistant to new experiences Tends to be more self-aware Tends to be more self-actualizing Tends to be more introspective Tends to be more independent and less conformist.

Answer 73

May be seen as eccentric or non-conformist May have difficulty making decisions or committing to a course of action May be seen as less practical or less grounded in reality May be seen as less conventional or less traditional May have difficulty sticking to plans or routines May have difficulty focusing or completing tasks May be more prone to boredom and may seek constant stimulation May be more prone to impulsiveness May be more prone to uncertainty May be more prone to self-doubt May be more prone to dissatisfaction May be more prone to anxiety or stress.

Answer 74

Outgoing and sociable Assertive and confident Energetic and enthusiastic Talkative and expressive Positive and optimistic Comfort with being the center of attention Enjoys being around people Tends to be more assertive and outgoing Tends to be more energetic and enthusiastic Tends to be more optimistic and positive Tends to be more talkative and expressive Tends to be more confident and self-assured Tends to be more leadership oriented.

Answer 75

May be seen as overly talkative or dominating in conversations May be seen as impulsive or lacking in self-reflection May be seen as overly competitive or needing constant validation May be seen as less private or less reserved May have difficulty with solitude or alone time May be more prone to risk-taking behavior May be more prone to overconfidence May be more prone to interrupting or talking over others May be more prone to impulsiveness May be more prone to attention seeking behavior May be more prone to interrupting or talking over others May be more prone to overreacting or exaggerating emotions.

Answer 76

Cooperative and considerate of others Trusting and good-natured Helpful and unselfish Empathetic and kind Good listener Good at resolving conflicts Tends to be more forgiving Tends to be more compassionate Tends to be more humble Tends to be more patient Tends to be more supportive Tends to be more easy-going.

Answer 77

May be seen as too passive or accommodating May have difficulty asserting themselves May have difficulty standing up for themselves May be taken advantage of by others May be seen as less competitive May be less able to confront others May be more likely to avoid conflicts May be more likely to be too trusting of others May be more likely to be overly dependent on others May be more likely to be less critical May be more likely to be less decisive May be more likely to be less self-motivated.

Answer 78

It is important to note that high scores in neuroticism are generally associated with negative traits and emotional instability. People who score highly in neuroticism tend to be more prone to anxiety, depression, and negative emotions like anger, guilt and envy. They are more easily stressed and more likely to react emotionally to situations. They tend to have a negative outlook on life and may be prone to self-doubt and self-criticism. Therefore, typically, one should not expect any positive traits associated with high scores in neuroticism.

Answer 79

Prone to anxiety and depression Easily stressed Negative emotions such as anger, guilt, and envy Negative outlook on life Prone to self-doubt and self-criticism Easily irritated or angered Easily overwhelmed by emotions Prone to negative rumination Prone to worry and fear Prone to mood swings Prone to insecurity Prone to self-consciousness.

Answer 80

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory of human motivation that proposes that people have a hierarchical order of needs that must be met in order to achieve self-actualization. The five levels of the hierarchy are: Physiological Needs: These are the most basic needs that are necessary for survival, such as food, water, shelter, and warmth. Without these basic needs being met, an individual cannot focus on higher level needs. Safety Needs: Once physiological needs are met, individuals will then seek to fulfill their safety needs. This includes the need for security, stability, and safety in the physical and emotional sense. This includes the need for protection from elements, security in the area where they live, and stability of job, health, and family. Love and Belonging Needs: Once safety needs are met, individuals will then seek to fulfill their love and belonging needs. This includes the need for affection, love, and a sense of belonging. This includes the need for friends, family and intimate relationships. Esteem Needs: Once love and belonging needs are met, individuals will then seek to fulfill their esteem needs. This includes the need for self-esteem, self-respect, and the respect of others. This includes the need for self-esteem, self-respect and the respect of others. Self-actualization Needs: Once esteem needs are met, individuals will then seek to fulfill their self-actualization needs. This is the highest level of the hierarchy, and it refers to the need for personal growth and self-fulfillment. This includes the need for self-actualization, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Maslow believed that people will naturally strive to fulfill these needs in this hierarchical order, and that once a lower level need is met, they will then strive to fulfill the next level of needs. He also believed that self-actualization is the ultimate goal of human existence, and that it can only be achieved once all the other needs have been met.

Answer 81

The brainstem is the lower part of the brain that connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord. It is composed of three main parts: the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. The midbrain is responsible for the control of movement and coordination, as well as visual and auditory reflexes. It also plays a role in the regulation of sleep and arousal. The pons is a structure that connects the brainstem to the cerebellum and is involved in the regulation of respiration, facial movements, and the sleep-wake cycle. The medulla oblongata is the most caudal (toward the tail) part of the brainstem and is responsible for controlling vital functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and the reflexes involved in coughing, sneezing, and swallowing. The brainstem is also responsible for relaying information between the cerebrum and the spinal cord. It plays a crucial role in the control of basic physiological functions and the integration of sensory information. Additionally, it also plays a role in the regulation of the autonomic nervous system, which controls unconscious bodily functions such as digestion, heart rate, and blood pressure. Overall, the brainstem plays a vital role in maintaining basic functions necessary for survival such as breathing, heart rate and maintaining consciousness, as well as relaying information between the brain and the spinal cord.

Answer 82

The diencephalon is a region of the brain located above the brainstem and below the cerebrum. It consists of several structures that play important roles in regulating various physiological and cognitive functions. The thalamus is a large, egg-shaped structure that acts as a relay center for sensory information. It receives input from the sense organs and directs it to the appropriate areas of the cerebrum for processing. It also plays a role in regulating consciousness, sleep, and arousal. The hypothalamus is a small but highly important structure located below the thalamus. It plays a crucial role in regulating a wide range of physiological functions such as body temperature, hunger and thirst, blood pressure, and hormone release. It also has a key role in the regulation of emotions, sexual behavior, and the stress response. Additionally, the hypothalamus connects the nervous system to the endocrine system through the pituitary gland. The epithalamus (Pineal Gland), is a small but important structure that is responsible for the production of melatonin, which regulates the sleep-wake cycle and seasonal functions. The subthalamus is a small but important structure that connects the basal ganglia to the thalamus, and plays a role in regulating movement and coordination. Overall, the diencephalon plays a vital role in regulating many essential physiological functions, relaying sensory information to the appropriate areas of the brain for processing, regulating emotions and behavior and connecting the nervous system to the endocrine system.

Answer 83

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain and is located above the brainstem and diencephalon. It is divided into two hemispheres, the left and the right, that are connected by the corpus callosum. The cerebrum is responsible for many higher cognitive functions such as consciousness, memory, perception, emotion, and voluntary movement. The cerebrum is divided into four main lobes: the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe, and the occipital lobe. Each lobe is responsible for specific functions: The frontal lobe, located at the front of the cerebrum, is responsible for many higher cognitive functions such as planning, problem-solving, decision making, and controlling movement. The parietal lobe, located at the top and back of the cerebrum, is responsible for processing and integrating sensory information from the body such as touch, temperature, and pain. The temporal lobe, located on the sides of the cerebrum, is responsible for processing auditory information and memory. The occipital lobe, located at the back of the cerebrum, is responsible for processing visual information and perception. The cerebrum also contains specialized areas that are responsible for specific functions such as language, movement, and emotion. The cerebrum is also divided into two main functional areas, the cerebral cortex and the subcortex. The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the cerebrum and is responsible for processing information and controlling movement. The subcortex is the innermost layer of the cerebrum and is responsible for regulating basic physiological functions such as heart rate and blood pressure. Overall, the cerebrum plays a vital role in many higher cognitive functions such as perception, memory

Answer 84

The cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, is divided into four main lobes: the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and occipital lobe. Each lobe is responsible for specific functions: The frontal lobe, located at the front of the cerebrum, is responsible for many higher cognitive functions such as planning, problem-solving, decision making, and controlling movement. It also plays a role in motor control, cognitive processes such as attention, language, and working memory. The parietal lobe, located at the top and back of the cerebrum, is responsible for processing and integrating sensory information from the body such as touch, temperature, and pain. It also plays a role in spatial awareness and the perception of objects in space. The temporal lobe, located on the sides of the cerebrum, is responsible for processing auditory information and memory. It also plays a role in the recognition of objects and faces, as well as language processing. The occipital lobe, located at the back of the cerebrum, is responsible for processing visual information and perception. It also plays a role in visual recognition, color perception, and spatial awareness. It's important to note that there is some overlap between the lobes, and specific functions can be processed by multiple areas in the brain.

Answer 85

The serotonin theory of depression proposes that low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain are a major contributing factor to the development of depression. Serotonin is a chemical messenger that plays a role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and other functions. According to this theory, low levels of serotonin in the brain can lead to an imbalance in these functions, resulting in symptoms of depression such as feelings of sadness, anxiety, loss of interest, and changes in sleep and appetite. The theory suggests that antidepressants, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), work by increasing the levels of serotonin in the brain. SSRIs block the reuptake of serotonin, which means they prevent the serotonin from being taken back into the nerve cells that released it. By keeping more serotonin in the brain, SSRIs make it easier for neurons to communicate with each other, which can help to improve mood and other symptoms of depression. It's important to note that serotonin is not the only neurotransmitter that is involved in the development of depression and other mental disorders. Other neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and GABA have also been implicated in the development of depression and other mental disorders. Additionally, depression can be caused by a variety of factors, such as genetic, environmental, and psychological. Overall, the serotonin theory of depression is one of several theories that have been proposed to explain the underlying causes of depression, and it is still being researched and understood.

Answer 86

Gaslighting: Narcissists often manipulate their victims by denying the reality of their actions and making them question their own sanity. They may lie, distort the truth, or blame their victims for their own behavior. Emotional manipulation: Narcissists use emotional manipulation to control their victims. They may use guilt, blame, and manipulation to get what they want and to make their victims feel responsible for their own abuse. Isolation: Narcissists may try to isolate their victims from friends, family, and other support systems, making it harder for them to leave the relationship. Financial control: Narcissists may also control their victims financially, by not allowing them access to their own money or by forcing them to rely on them for financial support. Physical and verbal abuse: Narcissists may engage in physical and verbal abuse, using violence and threats to control and intimidate their victims. Sexual abuse: Narcissists may use sexual manipulation, coercion, and abuse to control their victims.

Answer 87

Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD) and Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) are two different mental disorders that have some similarities but also some distinct differences. Here are some of the key differences between the two: Self-image: Narcissists have an inflated sense of self-importance and a strong need for admiration, while people with BPD often have a negative self-image and may struggle with feelings of worthlessness and abandonment. Emotions: Narcissists tend to have an emotional detachment and lack empathy towards others, while people with BPD tend to have intense and unstable emotions and may struggle with emotional regulation. Relationships: Narcissists tend to have a pattern of exploiting others and may have difficulty maintaining healthy relationships, while people with BPD tend to have intense and unstable relationships and may have a fear of abandonment. Anger: Narcissists tend to have a grandiose sense of self-importance and may become angry or aggressive when their image or ego is threatened, while people with BPD tend to have intense and unstable emotions and may become angry or aggressive as a result of feeling rejected or abandoned. Treatment: Narcissistic Personality Disorder is typically treated with psychotherapy such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), but medication may also be used in some cases. Borderline Personality Disorder treatment is often focused on therapy and medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) to help manage symptoms. ----------------------------------------------------- Narcissists are individuals who have an inflated sense of self-importance and a lack of empathy for others. They often engage in emotionally and/or physically abusive behavior towards their victims in order to maintain a sense of control and power over them. Narcissists may also use abuse as a means of getting their needs met, such as gaining admiration or attention. On the other hand, people with BPD often have a negative self-image and may struggle with feelings of worthlessness and abandonment. They may engage in emotionally and/or physically abusive behavior as a means of coping with intense and unstable emotions. This behavior may be driven by a fear of rejection or abandonment, and may be used as a means of trying to control their relationship with their partner in order to avoid feelings of abandonment.

Answer 88

Narcissists are individuals who have an inflated sense of self-importance and a lack of empathy for others. They often engage in emotionally and/or physically abusive behavior towards their victims in order to maintain a sense of control and power over them. Narcissists may also use abuse as a means of getting their needs met, such as gaining admiration or attention. On the other hand, people with BPD often have a negative self-image and may struggle with feelings of worthlessness and abandonment. They may engage in emotionally and/or physically abusive behavior as a means of coping with intense and unstable emotions. This behavior may be driven by a fear of rejection or abandonment, and may be used as a means of trying to control their relationship with their partner in order to avoid feelings of abandonment.

Answer 89

Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. Anchoring bias: The tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions. Availability heuristic: The tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. Representativeness heuristic: The tendency to judge the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype. Self-serving bias: The tendency to attribute success to internal factors while blaming failure on external factors. Halo effect: The tendency to make global judgments based on one characteristic. Illusory superiority: The tendency to overestimate one's abilities and performance relative to others. Optimism bias: The tendency to be overly optimistic about the outcome of planned actions. Negativity bias: The tendency to give more weight to negative information than positive information. Sunk cost fallacy: The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, time, or effort has been made.

Answer 90

Confirmation bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. a person believes that eating organic food is better for one's health than eating non-organic food. When they encounter new information about the benefits of organic food, they are more likely to accept and remember it, while dismissing or forgetting any information that contradicts their belief In this case, the person is not considering all the available information, but only focusing on the information that confirms their belief.

Answer 91

Anchoring bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions. This bias occurs because the mind uses the first piece of information as a reference point, or anchor, and then adjusts subsequent judgments or estimates based on that initial value. Here's an example of how anchoring bias can manifest: Let's say that you are shopping for a new car and you see one that you really like, but it's priced at $35,000. Later on, you see another car that is similar but is priced at $25,000, even though you like this car too, you might think it's not as good as the first one because it's cheaper.

Answer 92

The availability heuristic is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. People tend to rely on their most recent and vivid memories when making judgments about the probability of an event, rather than relying on statistical information or objective data. Here's an example of how availability heuristic can manifest: Let's say you heard about a plane crash on the news and it was very detailed, you might think that plane crashes are more common than they actually are. This is because the recent, vivid and detailed memory of the plane crash is more available in your mind and it might affect your perception of the likelihood of plane crashes.

Answer 93

The representativeness heuristic is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency to judge the probability of an event based on how similar it is to a prototype or a stereotype of a particular category or group. This bias can lead people to make judgments based on superficial similarities rather than considering the base rate of the category or the actual evidence. Here's an example of how the representativeness heuristic can manifest: Let's say you meet someone who is well-dressed, articulate, and has a good job, you might think that this person is more likely to be a Republican than a Democrat. However, this judgement is based on stereotypes and superficial similarities rather than considering the base rate of Republicans and Democrats in the population.

Answer 94

Sleep paralysis is believed to occur due to an overlap between REM sleep and wakefulness and thought to involve either a failure to activate neurons that inhibit REM sleep or a hyperactivation of neurons that promote REM sleep.

Answer 95

People who experience sleep paralysis experience aspects of REM sleep and sometimes hallucinations that resemble dreams.

Answer 96

The feeling of suffocation or choking might be due to difficulty breathing deeply caused by interference with normal respiratory muscle function that occurs in REM sleep.

Answer 97

The three types of symptoms of schizophrenia are positive symptoms, negative symptoms, and cognitive symptoms. Positive symptoms in schizophrenia involve the development of a behavior or thought pattern that is not normally present, such as hallucinations and/or delusions. Negative symptoms in schizophrenia involve the loss of a normal function and include lack of motivation, blunted emotion, or difficulty experiencing pleasure. Cognitive symptoms in schizophrenia are those that affect a person's ability to think clearly and include deficits in attention, memory, and/or concentration.

Answer 98

it involves neurotransmitter abnormalities at the root of the disorder, with dopamine activity being too high in certain parts of the brain. Dopamine has received much attention in research on schizophrenia because the general hypothesis is that dopamine activity is too high in certain parts of the brain in schizophrenia, and this hypothesis was originally formulated based on the findings that drugs used to treat schizophrenia act to reduce dopamine activity, and drugs that increase dopamine levels can induce behavior that in some ways resembles the psychotic states that schizophrenic patients experience. Glutamate abnormalities, such as dysfunctional glutamate receptors, also occur in schizophrenia and these may be capable of accounting for some negative and cognitive symptoms—something that dopamine levels have been less successful in explaining. Additionally, it has been proposed that dysfunction in glutamate systems may precede and lead to the dopamine hyperactivity observed in schizophrenia.

Answer 99

Glutamate abnormalities, such as dysfunctional glutamate receptors, also occur in schizophrenia and these may be capable of accounting for some negative and cognitive symptoms—something that dopamine levels have been less successful in explaining. Additionally, it has been proposed that dysfunction in glutamate systems may precede and lead to the dopamine hyperactivity observed in schizophrenia.

Answer 100

The symptoms of PTSD involve the occurrence of intrusive symptoms like nightmares or distressing memories linked to the trauma, avoidance of things that remind a person of the trauma, difficulty sleeping, negative emotions like fear, guilt, or sadness, trouble concentrating, and irritability.

Answer 101

One supported hypothesis about the neurocircuitry underlying PTSD suggests that it involves decreased activity in the prefrontal cortex and increased activity of the amygdala involved in the identification of threats. The medial prefrontal cortex, which normally acts to regulate amygdala function and inhibit it when there is not an immediate threat to attend to, fails to do so in individuals with PTSD, causing them to experience responses that are disproportionate to the current threat posed by the trauma-related stimuli.

Answer 102

Some patients with PTSD also experience the suppression of emotions, which causes symptoms like social detachment and emotional numbness. This might be caused by an opposing mechanism where increased activity in the medial prefrontal cortex dampens activity in regions such as the amygdala and other areas involved in emotional expression.

Answer 103

SNRIs work by inhibiting a mechanism called reuptake, which is where a protein called a transporter transports excess neurotransmitter molecules out of the synaptic cleft, typically back into the neuron that released them. SNRIs inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, leading to increases in their levels in the synaptic cleft.

Answer 104

The hypothesis is that the increases in serotonin and norepinephrine levels caused by SNRIs might alleviate the symptoms of depression. However, it should be noted that the neurobiological mechanism of depression is more complex than a simple neurotransmitter deficiency and it may be that the drugs have other mechanisms that contribute to their effectiveness.

Answer 105

Melatonin is produced in the pineal gland in the brain, the retina, and a number of other organs and cells, but the melatonin produced in the pineal gland is thought to contribute most to circulating levels of melatonin in the bloodstream. The main function of melatonin is its role in regulating circadian rhythms, which can be inhibited by Melatonin production can be inhibited by exposure to blue wavelength light.

Answer 106

Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is a monoamine neurotransmitter and hormone. Norepinephrine is the primary neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic nervous system and is typically associated with responses linked to increased activity, like elevated heart rate and blood pressure. Norepinephrine-producing neurons in the central nervous system are primarily concentrated in the pons and medulla,

Answer 107

The main function of the pineal gland is the secretion of a hormone called melatonin, which is best known for its role in regulating circadian rhythms. Melatonin secretion is regulated by signals from the retina about light in the environment, which travel to a nucleus in the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus and then via an indirect route to the pineal gland. The diencephalon is the region of the embryonic vertebrate neural tube that gives rise to anterior forebrain structures including the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior portion of the pituitary gland, and the pineal gland. The diencephalon encloses a cavity called the third ventricle. Above the midbrain.

Answer 108

When exposed to a rewarding stimulus, the brain responds by increasing the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine. The mesolimbic dopamine pathway is a pathway in the brain often associated with reward. It starts in the ventral tegmental area of the brainstem and connects it to the nucleus accumbens, a part of the brain strongly associated with motivation and reward.

Answer 109

The limbic system is a group of brain structures associated with emotions and memory. The amygdala is an almond-shaped collection of nuclei found in the temporal lobe and is involved in fearful and anxious emotions. The hippocampus is located next to the amygdala and is generally associated with memory rather than emotion. Activation of these limbic structures. This activation can lead to a range of emotional, physiological, and behavioral responses, such as fear, anxiety, increased heart rate, and heightened alertness, that help the body deal with the perceived threat posed by stress.

General Psychology Flashcards

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