General Terms Flashcards
(209 cards)
1
Q
molecule
A
atom + atom
2
Q
compound
A
molecules w/ dif. types of atoms
3
Q
element
A
single type of atom
4
Q
glycogen
A
glucose storage for animals
5
Q
starch
A
glucose storage for plants
6
Q
cellulose
A
plant cell wall
7
Q
chitin
A
fungi cell wall and arthropod exoskeleton
8
Q
peptidoglycan
A
bacterial cell wall
9
Q
Purines
A
Adenine, Guanine
10
Q
Pyrimidines
A
Thymine, Uracil, Cytosine
11
Q
Adenine-Thymine
A
2 hydrogen bonds
12
Q
Guanine-Cytosine
A
3 hydrogen bonds
13
Q
Euchromatin
A
loose genetic material (active, available for transcription)
14
Q
Heterochromatin
A
tight genetic material (inactive, fully condensed)
15
Q
Helicase
A
unwinds double helix
16
Q
DNA Polymerase
A
adds nucleotides to an existing strand (5’ to 3’)
17
Q
Ligase
A
brings together Okazaki fragments
18
Q
Topoisomerase
A
cuts and rejoins helix
19
Q
RNA Primase
A
catalyses the synthesis of RNA primers
20
Q
Telomeres
A
at the end of strands to protect them
21
Q
Simple diffusion
A
high to low, hydrophobic
22
Q
Facilitated diffusion
A
high to low, hydrophilic
23
Q
Active transport
A
low to high, hydrophilic (sodium, potassium, calcium, all ions, glucose) and hydrophobic
24
Q
Endocytosis
A
phagocytosis and pinocytosis (requires ATP)
25
Osmosis
low solute to high solute
26
Vacuole
1 membrane, waste and material storage
27
Ribosomes
0 membranes, protein synthesis
28
Smooth ER
1 membrane, substance transport around cell
29
Rough ER
1 membrane, synthesise membrane proteins or secrete proteins
30
Golgi apparatus
1 membrane, sorts and packages proteins
31
Mitochondria
2 membranes, cellular respiration
32
Lysosomes
1 membrane, digests foreign substances and worn-out organelles
33
Centrioles
1 membrane, spindle fiber formation during mitosis
34
Nucleus
2 membranes, control center and genetic info
35
Nucleolus
1 membrane, ribosome synthesis
36
Cell membrane
1 membrane, regulates transport in and out of cell
37
Glycolysis
Cytoplasm, anaerobic
| C6H12O6 + 2ATP -> 2 Pyruvate + 4ATP + 2NADH
38
Fermentation
2 Pyruvate reduced either to (2 Ethanol + CO2) or (2 Lactic acid) simultaneously 2NADH oxidised to 2NAD
39
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex
Matrix, aerobic
Pyruvate into Acetyl CoA
NAD to NADH
CO2 released as waste
40
Kreb's Cycle
Matrix, aerobic
| Products: oxaloacetic acid, NADH, ATP, FADH, CO2
41
Electron Transport Chain
Inner membrane, aerobic
| Energy phosphorylates ADP to ATP
42
polycistronic
prokaryote transcription
43
monocistronic
eukaryote transcription
44
Transcription
DNA to mRNA; nucleus
45
Translation
mRNA to proteins; cytoplasm/ribosome
46
tRNA
carries amino acids from the cytoplasm to ribosomes
47
start codon
AUG
48
stop codon(s)
UAA, UAG, UGA
49
codominance
heterozygote expresses both alleles (e.g. blood type AB)
50
incomplete dominance
mix of dominant and recessive alleles in phenotype
51
law of dominance
one allele is dominant over the other
52
law of segregation
two copies of a gene segregate and each gamete only gets one of the alleles
53
law of independent assortment
traits can segregate and recombine independently of other traits (linked genes violate this)
54
test cross
crossing with a recessive to determine genotype
55
SAT pedigree chart hints
1) recessive conditions skip generations
| 2) sex-linked if more males are impacted
56
Heterotroph Hypothesis
first living organism was a heterotroph
57
speciation
formation of a new species by evolution
58
divergent evolution
2 pops. of same species end up having dif. behaviours and traits (speciation is an extreme form of this)
59
convergent evolution
production of traits and behaviour between two separate 2 dif. pop/species (NEVER results in speciation)
60
analogous structures
Same structure, different ancestors (convergent evolution). Examples: wings in birds and insects
61
homologous structures
different structure, same ancestors (divergent evolution). Examples: human arm and whale flipper
62
vestigial structure
useless e.g. appendix in humans
63
central nervous system (CNS)
brain + spinal cord
64
cerebrum
conscious mind, voluntary actions
65
cerebellum
coordinates muscle movement & balance; coordination
66
medulla
involuntary actions; primitive region
67
hypothalamus
homeostasis
68
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
somatic or autonomic nervous system
69
somatic nervous system
voluntary; skeletal muscles (w/ acetylcholine)
70
autonomic nervous system
involuntary; sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system
71
sympathetic nervous system
increases body activity; fight or flight; norepinephrine
72
parasympathetic nervous system
decreases body activity; rest or digest; acetylcholine
73
peptide-based hormones
bind to receptors on extracellular surface; turns enzymes on/off; faster; examples: insulin, prolactin, glycogen
74
steroid hormones
bind to receptors on intracellular level; modifies transcription; slower; examples: aldosterone, estrogen, testosterone
75
anterior pituitary gland
growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, luteinising hormone, prolactin
(GH; TSH; FSH; ACTH; LH; Prolactin)
76
posterior pituitary gland
oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
77
thyroid gland
thyroxine, calcitonin
78
parathyroid gland
parathormone
79
adrenal medulla
epinephrine, norepinephrine
80
adrenal cortex
glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, sex steroids
81
pancreas
hormones (insulin and glucagon) and digestive enzymes (exocrine role)
82
gonads
testosterone, estrogen, progesterone
83
blood
50% plasma (mostly water + glucose, hormones, ions, gases, protein (albumin, fibrinogen, lipoproteins)) + 45% red blood cells (biconcave cell (w/ no nucleus) containing haemoglobin) + 5% white blood cells and platelets
84
white blood cells
phagocytes (eat) or lymphocytes (B-cells and T-cells)
85
B-cells
make antibodies, stick around as militia
86
T-cells
helper cells that help all lymphocytes divide and proliferate or killer cells that kill cells that have been infected
87
platelets
help blood clotting by secreting substances that ultimately convert fibrinogen to fibrin
88
type AB
universal recipient
89
type O
universal donor
90
arteries
away from heart; blood pressure is high; thick, muscular wall; branches into capillaries
91
capillaries
site of exchange; smallest blood vessels; slow and low; merge to form venules which merge to form veins
92
veins
return blood to heart; low pressure; muscle/skeletal contractions move blood; valves to ensure correct direction; no muscular walls
93
lymphatic system
network of vessels that recapture fluid and filters it with lots of white blood cells (via lymph nodes) and returns it to blood
94
blood pathway
vena cavae- right atrium- right ventricle- pulmonary artery- lungs- pulmonary veins- left atrium- left ventricle- aorta- body- (vena cavae)
95
atrioventricular valves (AV)
tricuspid and mitral
96
semilunar valves (SV)
aortic and pulmonary
97
inspiration
chest cavity increases, decrease in air pressure, air rushes into lungs, diaphragm contracts/flattens out/lowers
98
expiration
chest cavity decreases, increase in air pressure, air rushes out, diaphragm relaxes/curves upwards
99
pH of blood
7.4
100
vitamin A
retinal for slight
101
vitamin B
cellular respiration, DNA replication
102
vitamin C
collagen
103
vitamin D
calcium absorption
104
vitamin E
protects cell membranes
105
vitamin K
blood clotting
106
iron
hemoglobin
107
calcium
strong bones, teeth, and for muscle contraction
108
iodine
thyroxine
109
urine
urea acid (amino acids) + uric acid (nucleic acids) + creatinine (muscle metabolism)
110
bones
rigid substance made up. of cells embedded in a solid calcium-phosphate matrix. Supports the body, protects soft organs, produces blood cells, stores minerals
111
cartilage
ends of bones at the joins; shock absorber to prevent bones from rubbing against each other
112
muscle components
actin + myosin = sacromere -> myofibril -> muscle cell/fiber -> fascicle => whole muscle
113
epidermis
surface; dead skin cells
114
dermis
blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, glands
115
hypodermis
protects and insulates body // fat
116
endoderm
internal structures and organs
117
mesoderm
bones, blood vessels, muscles, heart and non-glandular organs
118
embryonic development stages
gametes - fertilisation - zygote - cleavage - morula - blastocyst - implantation - gastrulation - neuralation - fetus - birth
119
cuticle
waxy layer under epidermis that protects leaf and traps water
120
palisade layer
just under surface of leaf: most photosynthesis occurs here
121
spongy cells
beneath palisade: important for gas exchange, also carries out photosynthesis (but less)
122
stomates
gas exchange; controlled by guard cells
123
light-dependant reactions
membranes of thylakoids; water is split into hydrogen ions and oxygen; solar energy converted into usable energy (NADPH and ATP)
124
light-independant reactions
stroma of chloroplast; calvin cycle/carbon fixation, ribulose biphosphate into 2x glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
125
xylem
transports water and minerals; tracheids and vessel elements
126
phloem
transports products of photosynthesis; sieve cells and companion cells
127
root hairs
increase surface area for absorption of water and minerals
128
stamen
anther + filament
129
pistil
stigma + style + pollen tube + (ovary + ovule)
130
anther
makes pollen w/ microspores
131
ovule
forms megaspores (which can divide to form eggs and polar bodies). Becomes seed in reproduction process.
132
endosperm
food storing tissue that surrounds the embryo
133
ovary
becomes a fruit in reproduction process
134
fixed-action patterns
preprogrammed stereotypical behaviour triggered by specific stimuli
135
imprinting
recognition of some object as "mother"
136
classical conditioning
neutral signal leads to a reflex
137
operant conditioning
reward/punishment system
138
insight learning
ability to approach new situations and figure it out -> reasoning
139
phototropism
towards light
140
negative gravitropism
stem upwards
141
positive gravitropism
root downwards
142
thigmotropism
along a surface
143
circadian rhythm
when a biological clock makes an organism do something on a daily basis.
144
symbiosis
different species sharing a living space
145
mutualism
both organisms benefit
146
parasitism
one benefits, one harmed
147
commensalism
one benefits, one is neutral
148
abiotic
non-living
149
biotic
living
150
biological organisation
cell - tissue - organ - organism - population - community - ecosystem - biome - biosphere
151
population
group of individuals in a particular area that can interbreed and therefore share the same gene pool
152
community
group of populations that live in a particular environment, interact but not reproductively
153
niche
a way an organism lives in its environment
154
competition
two dif. organisms with the same niche
155
coevolution
alternate evolution of two species based on their interactions with each other
156
decomposers
bacteria/fungi; eat the dead
157
ecological succession
gradual change in an ecological community
158
pioneer organism
first to start living in the previously uninhabited area
159
climax community
succession ended, stable community
160
ecosystem
community + the environment it lives in
161
transpiration
water vapor escaping stomates
162
evaporation
water vapor escaping body of water
163
respiration
carbon returned to atmosphere
164
photosynthesis
carbon removed from atmosphere
165
legumes
plants with their own nitrogen-fixing bacteria
166
biomes
large areas classified by their ecosystems
167
the tundra
permafrost, deep root growth is difficult
168
the taiga
coniferous forest
169
the deciduous forest
lots of rain, hot and cold seasons, trees drop and regrow leaves
170
the grasslands
low-growing plants, fertile soil, insects are dominant herbivores.
171
tropical rain forest
highest rainfall, greatest diversity, very tall trees
172
the desert
driest, flora and fauna adapted to arid environment.
173
intertidal zone
marine; where land and water meet
174
neritic zone
marine; extends from intertidal zone to continental shelf
175
oceanic zone
marine; open ocean, very little nutrient concentration
176
pelagic
open water
177
bethic
ocean bottom
178
abyssal zone
marine; deep under oceanic zone; no light
179
photic zone
light for photosynthesis
180
aphotic zone
no light for photosynthesis, nutrients come from photic zone
181
littoral zone
freshwater; near shore, many plants, wide variety of consumers
182
limnetic zone
freshwater; farther from shore, light for photosynthesis, primary consumers thrive
183
profundal zone
freshwater; underneath limnetic zone; aphotic region; sinking nutrients; primary consumers are food for secondary consumers
184
human impact
greenhouse effect, o-zone depletion, acid rain, desertification, deforestation, pollution, reduction in biodiversity
185
adaptive radiation
numerous species from one common ancestor
186
tendons
bone to muscle
187
ligaments
bone to bone
188
chromosomal disorders
down syndrome, klinefelter's syndrome
189
autosomal recessive disorders
PKU, cystic fibrosis, Tay-Sach's
190
autosomal dominant disorders
huntington's disease
191
sex-linked recessive
color blindness and hemophilia
192
hardy-weinberg principle
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
```
p^2 = homozygous dominant
q^2 = homozygous recessive
2pq = heterozygous
```
193
silent mutation
not visible in phenotype because the protein product remains unchanged
194
zooplankton
primary consumer in an aquatic ecosystem
195
directional selection
one extreme favoured
| - peppered moths
196
stabilising selection
neither extreme favoured
197
disruptive selection
both extremes favoured
| - balanced polymorphism
198
evidence for evolution
1. fossil record
2. comparative anatomy + biochemistry + embryology
3. molecular biology
4. biogeography
199
types of natural selection
stabilising selection, diversifying or disruptive selection, and directional selection
200
sources of variation in a population
mutation, genetic drift and gene flow
201
single point mutation
introduces a new allele in the population
202
genetic drift
change in the gene pool due to chance
- bottleneck effect
- founder effect
203
the bottleneck effect
natural disasters reduce the population, and therefore the gene pool. Certain alleles may be then under or overrepresented compared with the original population.
204
the founder effect
when a small population breaks away from a larger population to colonise a new area, rare alleles may be overrepresented
205
gene flow
movement of alleles into or out of a population; can result from migration
206
Hardy-Weinberg factors that MUST be true if a population is stable...
1) Population is large
2) Population is isolated
3) No Mutations
4) Mating must be random
5) No natural selection
207
Forms of Isolation
1) Geographic Isolation
2) Polyploidy
3) Habitat Isolation (species encounter each other rarely in their area)
4) Behavioural Isolation (firefly example)
5) Temporal Isolation (if a flower becomes sexually mature earlier)
6) Reproductive Isolation (anatomical incompatibility: Great Dane x Chihuahua)
208
Patterns of Evolution
1) Divergent evolution
2) Convergent evolution
3) Parallel evolution
4) Coevolution
5) Adaptive radiation
209
Theories of Evolution
1) Gradualism
2) Punctuated Equilibrium
3) Spontaneous Generation
