General theoretical explanations Flashcards
1
Q
Why did Durkheim believe crime was inevitable?
A
Some people are inadequately socialised meaning they are more likely to deviate. Some people are exposed to different influences and circumstances: it is impossible for them to all be alike. Not every member of society can be equally committed to the same collective sentiments.
2
Q
What society did Durkheim imagine?
A
A society of perfect people where the standard of behaviour would be so high that the slightest slip would be considered a serious offence.
3
Q
What did Durkheim argue were the positive functions of crime?
A
Social integration, social regulation and social change
4
Q
What is social integration?
A
The cohesion that members of society experience when they share a collective expectation of the norms and values.
5
Q
How does crime cause social integration?
A
People tend to come together when someone has committed a terrible crime. There is a shared sense of anger towards the breach of morals that the criminal has committed.
6
Q
How does crime cause social change?
A
Deviant behaviour causes people to reflect on what is or is not allowed within society. Allows them to discover when the law does not line up with the collective sentiments of the majority. Leads to necessary legal reform which benefits the community.
7
Q
How does crime cause social regulation?
A
By punishing the offender authorities are sending a warning message to the rest of society.
8
Q
How did Durkheim view society?
A
As a stable structure based upon shared norms, values and beliefs concerning right and wrong.
9
Q
How do subcultures impact social norms?
A
Shared rules of behaviour become less clear. Shared norms become weaker.
10
Q
According to Merton, what causes crime?
A
The vision of success in American culture is attached to material and financial gain. Anomie is caused by the pressure to accomplish these goals. There is a strain between society’s expectations and the means to live up to them. People turn away from legitimate means of achieving success.
11
Q
What is anomie?
A
The state of lawlessness that comes with a breakdown of social order. People feel untethered to the collective consciousness entering a normative confusion.
12
Q
What are the five responses to strain to anomie?
A
Conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion
13
Q
What is conformity?
A
Following the normative means of achieving success regardless of structural setbacks.
14
Q
What is innovation?
A
Accepting the goal but finding alternative means to achieve it.
15
Q
What is ritualism?
A
Abandoning the goal but still conforming to the means to achieve it.
16
Q
What is retreatism?
A
Rejecting both the goal and the means to achieve it.
17
Q
What is rebellion?
A
Rejecting existing goals to replace them with new alternative goals.
18
Q
What are the advantages of strain theory?
A
Considers how social structures create pressure to turn to deviance. Explains why certain demographics may be more likely to commit crime.
19
Q
What are the disadvantages of strain theory?
A
Does not explain non-utilitarian crimes. Gives too much focus to individual crime ignoring group deviancy. Disproportionately attributes criminal activity to the working-class. Uses official crime statistics which tend to obscure white-collar crime.
20
Q
Which group does status frustration affect the most?
A
Young, working-class males.
21
Q
Why does status frustration effect young, working-class males?
A
Generally valued forms of success are impossible for many groups to attain. Felt discouragement because of being defined as failures and denied respect from the rest of society.
22
Q
What does status frustration cause?
A
Use their shared problem to collectively form a deviant subculture which flips the norms of the dominant culture. The behaviours valued by the subculture are those that wider society tends to condemn.
23
Q
Why do members of deviant subcultures commit crimes?
A
Members are rewarded with praise and status if they successfully carry out criminal behaviours. Gaining each others respect and striking back at the society that has rejected them.
24
Q
What are the advantages of status frustration?
A
Explains non-utilitarian crimes. Explains the prevalence of group deviance.
25
What are the disadvantages of status frustration?
There is a much wider variety of subcultures that are not accounted for. Does not acknowledge crimes committed by those who have not been marginalised. Assumes that all members of society strive for the same forms of success.
26
What do right realists believe is the cause of crime?
Reject the idea put forward by Marxists that deeper structural or economic factors are the causes of crime. They do accept that high levels of social disorder and low levels of social control are associated with higher crime rates but mainly believe that the individual is responsible for crime.
27
What is rational choice theory?
Most criminals are rational actors. They weigh up the costs and benefits to assess whether a crime is worth committing. If the risk of getting caught is low or the punishment if caught will not be severe, the individual is more likely to commit the crime. Crime will increase if it brings high rewards relative to working within the rules of society.
28
What is a disadvantage of the rational choice theory?
Assumes criminals have free will
29
Who came up with the routine activities theory?
Cohen and Felson
30
What is the routine activities theory?
Social control methods, lack of opportunities and the risk of being caught prevents crime from occurring. Crime needs three conditions, including motivation, availability of opportunity and targets, and lack of capable guardians
31
Who came up with the underclass theory?
Charles Murray
32
What is the underclass theory?
Changes to family structure were responsible for the increase in the crime rate in the 1970s and 80s. Increasing welfare benefits since the 1960s have led to increasing numbers of people to become dependent on the state. This has led to the decline of marriage and the growth of lone parent families. Women can now live off benefits rather than having to get married to have children. Lone mothers are ineffective agents of socialisation, especially for boys.
33
Why do boys from lone parent families become criminals?
Boys lack paternal discipline and appropriate male role models. Turn to delinquent role models on the street to gain status through crime. Fail to learn self-control and the difference between right and wrong. Rather than supporting their families through a steady job.
34
Who came up with the broken windows theory?
Wilson and Kelling
35
What is the broken windows theory?
Broken windows represent the various signs of disorder and lack of concern for others. Leaving broken windows unrepaired sends out a signal that no one cares. In these neighbourhoods there is an absence of social control. The police are only concerned with serious crimes and turn a blind eye to petty nuisance behaviours. Members of the community feel intimidated and powerless. The situation deteriorates, tipping the neighbourhood into a spiral of decline. The area becomes a magnet for deviants.
36
Who came up with the biological differences theory?
Wilson and Hernstein
37
What is the biological differences theory?
Crime is caused by a combination of biological and social factors. Biological differences between individuals make some people innately predisposed to commit crime due to personality traits, including aggressiveness, risk-taking and low intelligence
38
What is a disadvantage of the biological differences theory?
Conflicts with the view that people choose to commit crime freely
39
What are the disadvantages of right realist theories?
Ignores the structural causes of crime such as poverty and social inequality. Assumes that all crimes are rational and does not consider irrational crimes with no benefit such as crimes of passion. Too concerned with street crime and ignores corporate or white-collar crimes which may be more costly and harmful.
40
What do realist criminologists argue?
Criminologists should abandon grand theorising approaches such as about the ultimate causes of crime. Focus on working with governments to develop practical solutions to crime. Particularly emphasise the increased use of police and punishment to control crime.
41
Who are the main left-realist theorists?
Young, Lea and Mathews
42
What do left-realists criminologists believe?
Victims of street crimes are most likely to be the working-class people. Criminologists should focus in dealing with these types of ordinary crime rather than focusing on elite crime. Crime and the fear of crime are real social problems and that should be taken seriously.
43
What do left realists think causes crime?
Relative deprivation, marginalisation and subcultures
44
What is relative deprivation?
People are deprived compared with others in society. People were better off in the 1980s than they were in the 1930s but crime was worse in the 1980s. People are not actually poorer but live in close proximity with people who are much richer. Even though the divide was greater in the 1930s, those in poverty were less aware of the lives of the wealthy. Society was more segregated while now people on the poverty line may live very close to the rich. They have a greater feeling of relative deprivation because the media and advertising have raised expectations. There is more pressure to get more stuff to keep up with others.
45
What is marginalisation?
People lack the power to fully participate in society due to poor education, lack of opportunities and unemployment. Marginalised people lack both clear goals and organisations to represent their interests. Results in the feeling of resentment and frustration, expressed through violence.
46
What are subcultures?
Working-class subcultures develop from the problems arising from social inequality. A collective subculture forms to develop a collective solution to relative deprivation. Want to achieve mainstream goals of society but resort to illegitimate means.
47
What are the disadvantages of left realist theories?
Relies on quantitative data from official statistics. Interactionists would argue that we need to investigate qualitative data to reveal the meanings behind the acts. Too soft on the criminal. Does not explain how criminals should be dealt with.
48
How is capitalism crimogenic?
Crime is a natural outgrowth of the capitalist system and the criminal justice system works for the elites and against lower classes. Social order is categorised by an unequal class hierarchy where powerful groups impose order on the working-class. The legal system serves the interests of the Bourgeoisie, so the power is held by them. The laws reflect Bourgeoisie ideology and works to control the masses, prevent revolution and keep people in a state of false consciousness.
49
What is a capitalist society?
David Gordon says “capitalist societies are dog eat dog societies.” The capitalist system encourages individuals to pursue self-interest rather than public duty. Putting their interests before the interests of others, the community and the environment. There is an immense competitive pressure to make more money and be more successful. Because in a competitive system this is the only way to ensure survival.
50
What does capitalism encourage?
Through advertising etc. encourages individuals to be materialistic consumers. These individuals aspire to an unrealistic and often unattainable lifestyle. Individuals who lack the legitimate means to achieve the materialist norm may have feelings of failure, inadequacy and frustration.
51
How does capitalism impact law?
Capitalist states are reluctant to pass laws which regulate large capitalist concerns such as pollution. They do not want to alienate large companies because these generate income. The rights of property owners to keep their properties empty are put before the rights of the needy to shelter.
52
What are the superclass?
The superclass or the ruling-class are at the top of the social hierarchy while the underclass are at the bottom.
53
How do the superclass cause crime?
The super wealthy segregate themselves from the wealthy by living in exclusive gated communities and travelling via private jets etc. This visible evidence of massive inequalities gives the underclass a sense of injustice and anger. Leading to economic crime as well as violent street crime.
54
What type of crime is prevalent in capitalist societies?
Corporate crime and white-collar crime
55
What is corporate crime?
Committed by or on behalf of corporations or businesses which act to further their interests. The drive is to increase profits.
56
What is white-collar crime?
Committed for an individuals own interests, often against the corporations within which they work. Difficult to prosecute because the offender will use sophisticated means to conceal their activities. The level of public awareness remains low because the public are unaware of the crimes taking place.
57
Who is famous for white-collar crime?
Bernie Madoff executed the largest Ponzi scheme in history defrauding thousands of investors.
58
What is selective law enforcement?
The police focus on policing the underclass and working-class. The justice system ignores the crimes of the elite and the middle-classes, but they are just as likely to commit crimes. The disproportionate prosecution of working-class serves to maintain ruling-class power and reinforce ruling-class ideology.
59
How does selective law enforcement benefit the capitalist system?
The imprisonment of selected members of the lower classes neutralises opposition to the system. By punishing individuals and defining them as failures we ignore the failings of the system that lead to the conditions of inequality and poverty that create the conditions which lead to crime. The imprisonment of members of the underclass sweeps out of sight the worst jetsam of society.
60
What are the advantages of Marxist theories?
There are lots of statistics and case studies to support the harms of corporate crime. Provides explanations for crimes committed by various social classes, a variety of offences and the nature of law.
61
What are the disadvantages of Marxist theories?
Street crime does more harm than corporate crime. Crime exists in non-capitalist societies. Realists would argue that it focuses on victims of crimes of the rich, not the real victims. Postmodernists would argue that it is reductionist and society is more complex. While capitalism and economic class might well influence behaviour, there are many other equally important influences.
62
What do neo-Marxists believe ?
Emphasise the cultural aspect of class conflict rather than the economic focus. Recognise that working-class criminals make a conscious choice to break the law. Sometimes this is a positive political act against the Bourgeoisie. The crimes are meaningful and are symbolic acts resisting occupation.
63
What do neo-Marxists consider?
The structure of society, the structural background to the criminal act, the immediate cause of the criminal act, the impact of the criminal act, the societal reaction to the act and the impact of that reaction.
64
What are the disadvantages of neo-Marxist theories?
Ignores the fact that most victims of crime are working-class. Puts too much emphasis on class inequality and ignores other types of groups. Focuses too much on property crime instead of other crimes like murder. Not all poor people commit crimes. Not all capitalist societies have high crime rates.
65
What are the seductions of crime?
Katz tried to emphasise the connection of emotion to crime. Criminals commit crime because it is thrilling and exciting.
66
Who created the concept of edgework?
Lyng
67
What is edgework?
Criminals know the boundaries of society and attempt to test the laws as a thrill-seeking opportunity. Recognise that people like taking risks because it is fun. The risk of being caught is part of the appeal.
68
What is the culture of resentment?
The media creates a gap between expectations and achievements. Teaches people what to expect from life, not what they can actually achieve and afford. The inability of some individuals to satisfy material needs leads to resentment against those who can.
69
What is fragmentation?
Society is continuously changing. Becoming fragmented with a range of diverse groups with different interests. Resulting in the breakdown of shared norms and values. Individuals adopt more personalised and complex identities and lifestyles.
70
What is individualism?
Social class, work and family used to form our identities and give us roles in society. Social structures have collapsed and been replaced with individualism. Individuals choose their lifestyle, values and identities they want to adopt. Individuals increasingly focus on themselves. These individuals often have little regard and respect for others. They are free of obligation to other people.
71
How does individualism relate to crime?
Means that the causes of crime are undiscoverable. They are one-offs with infinite numbers of potential causes. Every crime is motivated by an infinite number of causes specific to the individual.
72
What is consumer culture?
In a postmodern society people are consumers. Identity is now concerned with the concept of consumption, not class, race or gender. Promoting individualism.
73
What is social harm?
The negative impact associated with an illegal or disorderly act.
74
How does social harm relate to crime?
We are persuaded into avoidance of social harm through participation in consumer society. We keep our jobs if we behave and do not break the law. We buy things we do not need and we keep our jobs to pay for things we do not need. Those who cannot participate in consumer society face stricter social control measures such as heavier policing.
75
What is globalisation?
Companies export their manufacturing jobs to developing countries, resulting in unemployment. Research suggests that crime rates are high in areas of industrial decline in developed countries.
76
How does globalisation cause crime?
The infrastructure that allows rapid international travel, communication and business also facilitates international crime. This is often organised crime, including people trafficking, drug trafficking and international terrorism.
77
What are the advantages of postmodernist theories?
Recognises the fluidity of current society. Helps explain the diverse reasons why people commit crime.
78
What are the disadvantages of postmodernist theories?
Incorrect to claim that social structures do not dictate our life choices. People are still constrained by socioeconomic status, gender and race. Marxists would argue that it ignores the fact that the media is controlled by the Bourgeoisie. Fails to explain the resentment felt by those who are marginalised.
79
What did Messerschmidt argue?
Masculinity is an accomplishment and something that men constantly prove to others and build on.
80
What is hegemonic masculinity?
The dominant form of masculinity which most men want to accomplish. Fuelled by heterosexuality, paid work, aggression, toughness, competitiveness and ability to subordinate women. The nature of hegemonic masculinity might explain why men from all social classes commit acts of violence and rape.
81
What are subordinated masculinities?
Subordinated masculinities refer to men who do not fit into the construction of hegemonic masculinity. Some men may turn to crime as a means of asserting their masculinity when other legitimate means are blocked.
82
What is the sex role theory?
Gendered differences in crime rates result from differences in gender roles, identities and processes of socialisation. Traditional values and norms associated with femininity discourage criminality. Gender socialisation wants them to adopt feminine roles, so they become more emotional and less aggressive. This makes them more afraid of committing crime. Values and behaviours associated with masculinity are conducive to criminality. Encouraged to be tough and aggressive. Disposed to commit acts of violence.
83
What is the expressive role?
Women traditionally perform the expressive role in their families. Raising children and taking care of husband’s emotional needs.
84
Who came up with the sex role theory?
Talcott Parsons
85
Why are women less likely to cause harm to others or commit crimes?
Girls grow up internalising values such as being caring and empathetic. Women get more attached to their families and wider communities. They are more likely to keep in touch with friends and relatives. This strengthens their community bonds. Women have taken up a dual burden which keeps them busier than men. This reduces their opportunities to engage in criminal activity.
86
What is compulsory masculinity?
Makes seek to distance themselves from feminine models of behaviour. This means they engage in compulsory masculinity.
87
What are the disadvantages of the sex role theory?
Walklate criticises the sex role theory because of its biological assumptions. Assumes that because women have the biological capacity to bear children that they are best suited to the expressive role.
88
What did Pat Carlen say about women?
Working-class women made a class and gender deal that generally kept them under control. When the class and gender deals broke down, working-class women were more likely to commit crimes.
89
What is the class deal?
The material rewards that happen when people work in paid employment. They work hard in exchange for pay which they use to pay for consumer goods.
90
What is the gender deal?
The rewards that women get from fulfilling their gender role. They do domestic labour and give love and companionship to their husbands, in exchange for love and financial support.
91
What is the control theory?
Frances Heidensohn said women commit less crime because patriarchal society imposes greater control over women. There was more informal control of girls than boys in society. They go from being controlled by their fathers to being controlled by their husbands. Working men would socialise with their fellow workers at pubs etc. working women would return home to carry out housework and childcare. Women are controlled everywhere in two spheres.
92
What are the two spheres women are controlled in?
The public sphere is dominated by men, preventing women from committing crime. In the private sphere, women must act feminine at home, so they have less time to commit crime.
93
What are the disadvantages of the gender and class deal theory?
Underplays free will and choice in offending by saying that women are controlled by the patriarchy. Adler argues that women today have much more freedom and that is why female crime is increasing.
94
What does Freda Adler argue?
Women have more opportunity to commit crime since, due to the rise in feminism, there is more equality. Women are no longer constrained by the dual burden to the same extent. Societal control of women is weakening. Increased freedom and growing economic opportunities for women have resulted in higher female crime rates. As women achieve similar standings and employment patterns as men, they start to resemble men’s criminal behaviours too.
95
What is ladette culture?
This late 1990s and early 2000s phenomenon was a product of women’s increased equality. This liberated young women from the confines of a very conservative form of femininity. Ladettes would behave in a boisterously assertive or crude manner and engage in heavy drinking sessions. They would copy male behaviour by drinking, smoking etc.
96
What are ethnic groups?
Held together by a common language, culture, group spirit (nationalism) or geography.
97
What is criminalisation?
Some crime statistics can be biased or do not represent the experiences of ethnic groups. Data collected may be subject to stereotypes or existing constructs concerning ethnicity and race. Particular populations become associated with criminality and deviance. This leads to marginalised groups being labelled as figures of danger, menace, etc.
98
Where is the relationship between ethnicity and crime most obvious?
The relationship between ethnicity and crime can be seen in data across core institutions. This data reveals the significant disproportion and over-representation of black and minority ethnic populations. In unfavourable categories, such as stop-and-search, arrests and convictions.
99
What do left realists say about ethnicity?
Lea and Young argue that ethnic minority groups are disadvantaged compared to other groups in society. They are more likely to belong to the working-class, suffering from lower wages and relative deprivation.
100
How does relative deprivation affect ethnic minority groups?
Individuals of ethnic minority groups are encouraged to pursue material success but their opportunities are blocked by schools, unemployment and racism. Negative subcultures form due to blocked opportunities and as a group’s reaction to failure to achieve mainstream goals. This results in feelings of resentment and frustration, expressed through violence.
101
What do Marxists say about ethnicity?
Castles and Kodak argue that capitalism was built on slavery. Even though slavery is no longer practiced, racial prejudice is still used to defend treating them poorly and providing them with poor working conditions. Crime can be a result of this as ethnic minority groups fight back.
102
What did Paul Gilroy say about ethnicity?
Black crime was a form of resistance against a repressive, racist (capitalist) state. Criminal statistics are a manifestation of racial stereotypes being acted upon by the police and criminal justice system. There is no greater criminality among black people than white people. The media created a folk devil of black people generating deviance amplification.
103
What did Stuart Hall say about ethnicity?
Assessed the moral panic created by the media over crimes like mugging in the 1970s. Found exaggerated newspaper reports on the increased rate of mugging in the UK, especially amongst black men. However, it was not increasing as quickly as it had been in the last 10 years. The moral panic regarding black criminality created a distraction and diverted the focus from the wider economic crisis.
104
What is a moral panic?
The exaggerated media reaction to behaviour that deviates from the norms and values of society.
105
What was Hall’s analysis?
A severe economic recession resulted in unemployment and mass strikes. The response of the media, state and police. Highlighted street robberies without explaining the context behind them, creating a moral panic. The government responded by deploying more police in areas with higher crime rates. So, arrest rates rose and were reported by the media. Public attention remained focused on black criminality rather than the significant problems of the capitalist system. This led to higher rates of crime and criminalisation among young black men.
106
What was the MacPherson report?
In April (1993) Stephen Lawrence was stabbed to death at a bus stop in London by white youths heard using racist language. The Met police mishandled the case and overlooked key forensic evidence. The MacPherson report described the police as institutionally racist and resulted in major changes in the law and policing and two convictions for Lawrence’s murder.
107
Why do less older people commit crimes?
After age 25, there is a decrease in criminal activity as people take on new roles like wage earner, parent, spouse, etc. The possibility of jail time becomes a more serious matter because of the impact it will have on the individual’s life and responsibilities.
108
What type of crime do older people commit?
There are more opportunities for work-related crime for older people. Pretty crime is less common because older people do not have the time or opportunity to commit this type of crime.
109
Why is youth crime so prevalent?
The brain is not fully developed until 25 which accounts for irrational decision-making. More young people live in urban areas which provides more opportunities for crime. Most violent crime that is not murder or domestic violence is likely to be committed by young people in situations involving drink and drugs.
110
Why is crime different in youths in the working and middle-classes?
Working-class youths are more likely to be in low-paid, low-skill work or unemployed. Middle and upper-class youths have fewer opportunities to commit crime because they are more likely to be in full time education.
111
Why do the police criminalise young males?
The more the association between young people and criminals becomes established, the more the process of criminalisation begins to resemble a self-fulfilling prophecy. The more closely they are looked at the more involvement in crime is picked up. Lots of crime is unsophisticated and unplanned so it is more likely to be witnessed.
112
How did Cohen research age and crime?
Researched young, working-class people, especially boys in the 1950s in North America. Found that individuals do not carry out crimes like vandalism or violence on their own. Juvenile delinquency is a group phenomenon.
113
How did the American education system cause juvenile delinquency?
The American education system sets middle-class values and expectations to their students. Working-class students feel alienated and find it harder to compete and succeed meaning they feel status frustration. Turn to criminality to gain status and take revenge on the institutions that discriminated against them in the first place.
114
Why are most delinquents motivated by status frustration?
Most delinquents are motivated by status frustrations because they do not have the independence they want. Peer groups act as a separate identity to school or family and give this independence. More independence and less responsibilities within the group leads them to seek excitement. Peer groups give support and encouragement to the individual if they engage in delinquent acts.
115
Who came up with delinquency and drift?
Matza
116
What is delinquency and drift?
Deviant values are not a feature of criminal subcultures but something we all share. Delinquents have similar values to the rest of society and even express outrage about crime. They are committed to the same norms and values as the rest of society. When they commit crime they express regret and remorse afterwards. Society prevents them from being delinquent most of the time.
117
Why do deviants drift into deviant activities?
Deviants drift into deviant activities through spontaneity and impulsiveness. Give into subterranean values like greed, power, lust, hatred, prejudice, malice and aggression.
118
What are techniques of neutralisation?
Even though they do not approve of crimes they use techniques of neutralisation to justify their own criminal behaviour. Attempt to explain their behaviour in order to quickly return to being a normal, compliant member of society.
119
What are the five techniques of neutralisation?
Denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of the victim, condemnation of condemners and appeal to higher loyalties
120
What is denial of responsibility?
When the offender argues that they were a victim of circumstance and had no other choice
121
What is denial of injury?
When the offender argues that their actions did not harm anyone
122
What is denial of the victim?
When the offender argues that the victim deserved what happened to them
123
What is condemnation of condemners?
When the offender argues that it is unfair for them to be blamed and they are persecuted or punished out of spite
124
What does appeal to higher loyalties mean?
When the offender argues that their actions were justified, even positive, for the greater good
125
Who came up with peer groups and focal concerns?
Miller (1958)
126
What are peer groups?
Male working-class youths have their own beliefs, values and characteristics which make them a subculture of their own. They have their own culture and traditions which are fundamentally different from those in higher-classes
127
What are focal concerns?
Working-class boys were socialised into several distinct values that together meant they were more likely engage in deviant behaviour.
128
What are the six focal concerns?
Toughness, smartness, excitement, fatalism, autonomy and trouble
129
What is toughness?
The rejection of timidity or weakness
130
What is smartness?
The ability to outwit or dupe others
131
What is excitement?
The search for thrills for emotional stimulus
132
What is fatalism?
The belief that little can be done about their lives and their future has already been decided
133
What is autonomy?
They do not want to be pushed around and want to be independent
134
What is trouble?
The belief that violence is part of everyday life
135
What are the disadvantages of delinquency and drift?
Feminists would argue that focal concerns are masculine values
136
How does the underclass theory relate to social class and crime?
The welfare state created welfare dependency and has perverse incentives that encouraged lone parenthood and discouraged work. Generations of young boys who grew up without the example of paid employment resulted in a criminal underclass of welfare-dependent people
137
How does capitalism relate to social class and crime?
Capitalism amplifies the structural inequalities in society. Those exploited by capitalism may turn to crime. Crime performed an idealogical function for capitalism by ignoring structural factors behind criminality and making the individual responsible. The ruling-class dehumanise criminals for their actions and use the legal system to neutralise opposition to their ideology.
138
How does labelling theory relate to social class and crime?
Focuses on how agents of social control attach stigmatised stereotypes to particular groups and how they change their behaviour once labelled.
139
How does status frustration relate to social class and crime?
Refers to the sense of discouragement that young working-class males feel due to being defined as failures and denied respect from the rest of society.
140
How does strain theory relate to social class and crime?
Society puts pressure on individuals to achieve socially accepted goals, even though they lack the means to do so. Makes individuals feel frustration at the fact that they cannot achieve the same goals. Turn to crime in order to achieve them.
141
How does marginalisation relate to social class and crime?
They often have a lower quality of life, access to opportunity and physical health. Crime can be a means to access what they are denied, establish power or influence or otherwise resist the oppressive influences of society.
142
How does relative deprivation relate to social class and crime?
The rise in social media has shown more people, more often what they cannot experience increasing feelings of frustration. They may begin to commit crimes in order to get the money for the item, the item itself or something of equal value.
143
How do subcultures relate to social class and crime?
When marginalised populations commit crime in response to disenfranchisement enabled by capitalism. They create a new way of life that gives the community power to develop its own structure.
144
Why would a poor student want to join a deviant subculture?
They might be written off by teachers as a bad learner due to their poverty. This damages the student’s chances of getting into college and eventually being financially stable. They may choose to join a gang so they can move up the ranks and get more influence and money.
145
Who came up with the social disorganisation theory?
Shaw and McKay
146
What did Shaw and McKay study?
Studied crime patterns in the Chicago district. Found that the further you moved from the centre of the city the more the rate of male delinquency declined. The central area was a zone of transition with a large number of immigrants, low-income families and a constantly shifting population. Lack the community spirit and close relationship between neighbours that areas with less population movement will be able to establish.
147
What is a zone of transition?
Socially disorganised, containing broken families, violence and other social problems
148
Why does the zone of transition have a high crime rate?
The population is constantly changing and in a large anonymous urban setting there is less social control.
149
Who looked at crime in rural areas?
Marshall and Johnson (2005)
150
What is crime like in rural areas?
Anxiety and worry about all types of crime is less in rural areas than urban areas. People living in rural areas see themselves as less likely to become a victim of crime.
151
How is burglary different in rural and urban areas?
Rural areas have a higher risk of burglaries in high income households while urban areas have a higher risk in low income households.
152
How is crime different in urban and rural areas?
Crime is much higher in urban areas compared with rural areas
153
Who did the Croydon study?
Morris
154
What did Morris find?
Found the highest rates of crime were concentrated in council states in the Croydon area, excluding the central business district. Argued that these council estates could not be described as socially disorganised because there was more evidence to suggest they were tightly knit communities where people knew neighbours well and with low levels of population change (turnover).
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Which areas were socially disorganised?
If any areas could be described as socially disorganised, it would be the more middle-class residential areas. In these areas people did not interact as often.
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Who did the Sheffield study?
Baldwin and Bottoms (1976)
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What was the Sheffield study?
Tested the concept of social disorganisation. Categorised three main areas, including owner occupied accommodation, council tenants and rented accommodation.
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What did Baldwin and Bottoms find?
Council tenants and rented accommodation had the highest crime rates. The degree of social disorganisation was a factor but was not significant for council estates. There was no correlation between high population and crime rates which means there was no evidence to support the concept of social disorganisation.
